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+/**
+ * Javascript implementation of X.509 and related components (such as
+ * Certification Signing Requests) of a Public Key Infrastructure.
+ *
+ * @author Dave Longley
+ *
+ * Copyright (c) 2010-2014 Digital Bazaar, Inc.
+ *
+ * The ASN.1 representation of an X.509v3 certificate is as follows
+ * (see RFC 2459):
+ *
+ * Certificate ::= SEQUENCE {
+ *   tbsCertificate       TBSCertificate,
+ *   signatureAlgorithm   AlgorithmIdentifier,
+ *   signatureValue       BIT STRING
+ * }
+ *
+ * TBSCertificate ::= SEQUENCE {
+ *   version         [0]  EXPLICIT Version DEFAULT v1,
+ *   serialNumber         CertificateSerialNumber,
+ *   signature            AlgorithmIdentifier,
+ *   issuer               Name,
+ *   validity             Validity,
+ *   subject              Name,
+ *   subjectPublicKeyInfo SubjectPublicKeyInfo,
+ *   issuerUniqueID  [1]  IMPLICIT UniqueIdentifier OPTIONAL,
+ *                        -- If present, version shall be v2 or v3
+ *   subjectUniqueID [2]  IMPLICIT UniqueIdentifier OPTIONAL,
+ *                        -- If present, version shall be v2 or v3
+ *   extensions      [3]  EXPLICIT Extensions OPTIONAL
+ *                        -- If present, version shall be v3
+ * }
+ *
+ * Version ::= INTEGER  { v1(0), v2(1), v3(2) }
+ *
+ * CertificateSerialNumber ::= INTEGER
+ *
+ * Name ::= CHOICE {
+ *   // only one possible choice for now
+ *   RDNSequence
+ * }
+ *
+ * RDNSequence ::= SEQUENCE OF RelativeDistinguishedName
+ *
+ * RelativeDistinguishedName ::= SET OF AttributeTypeAndValue
+ *
+ * AttributeTypeAndValue ::= SEQUENCE {
+ *   type     AttributeType,
+ *   value    AttributeValue
+ * }
+ * AttributeType ::= OBJECT IDENTIFIER
+ * AttributeValue ::= ANY DEFINED BY AttributeType
+ *
+ * Validity ::= SEQUENCE {
+ *   notBefore      Time,
+ *   notAfter       Time
+ * }
+ *
+ * Time ::= CHOICE {
+ *   utcTime        UTCTime,
+ *   generalTime    GeneralizedTime
+ * }
+ *
+ * UniqueIdentifier ::= BIT STRING
+ *
+ * SubjectPublicKeyInfo ::= SEQUENCE {
+ *   algorithm            AlgorithmIdentifier,
+ *   subjectPublicKey     BIT STRING
+ * }
+ *
+ * Extensions ::= SEQUENCE SIZE (1..MAX) OF Extension
+ *
+ * Extension ::= SEQUENCE {
+ *   extnID      OBJECT IDENTIFIER,
+ *   critical    BOOLEAN DEFAULT FALSE,
+ *   extnValue   OCTET STRING
+ * }
+ *
+ * The only key algorithm currently supported for PKI is RSA.
+ *
+ * RSASSA-PSS signatures are described in RFC 3447 and RFC 4055.
+ *
+ * PKCS#10 v1.7 describes certificate signing requests:
+ *
+ * CertificationRequestInfo:
+ *
+ * CertificationRequestInfo ::= SEQUENCE {
+ *   version       INTEGER { v1(0) } (v1,...),
+ *   subject       Name,
+ *   subjectPKInfo SubjectPublicKeyInfo{{ PKInfoAlgorithms }},
+ *   attributes    [0] Attributes{{ CRIAttributes }}
+ * }
+ *
+ * Attributes { ATTRIBUTE:IOSet } ::= SET OF Attribute{{ IOSet }}
+ *
+ * CRIAttributes  ATTRIBUTE  ::= {
+ *   ... -- add any locally defined attributes here -- }
+ *
+ * Attribute { ATTRIBUTE:IOSet } ::= SEQUENCE {
+ *   type   ATTRIBUTE.&id({IOSet}),
+ *   values SET SIZE(1..MAX) OF ATTRIBUTE.&Type({IOSet}{@type})
+ * }
+ *
+ * CertificationRequest ::= SEQUENCE {
+ *   certificationRequestInfo CertificationRequestInfo,
+ *   signatureAlgorithm AlgorithmIdentifier{{ SignatureAlgorithms }},
+ *   signature          BIT STRING
+ * }
+ */
+(function() {
+/* ########## Begin module implementation ########## */
+function initModule(forge) {
+
+// shortcut for asn.1 API
+var asn1 = forge.asn1;
+
+/* Public Key Infrastructure (PKI) implementation. */
+var pki = forge.pki = forge.pki || {};
+var oids = pki.oids;
+
+// short name OID mappings
+var _shortNames = {};
+_shortNames['CN'] = oids['commonName'];
+_shortNames['commonName'] = 'CN';
+_shortNames['C'] = oids['countryName'];
+_shortNames['countryName'] = 'C';
+_shortNames['L'] = oids['localityName'];
+_shortNames['localityName'] = 'L';
+_shortNames['ST'] = oids['stateOrProvinceName'];
+_shortNames['stateOrProvinceName'] = 'ST';
+_shortNames['O'] = oids['organizationName'];
+_shortNames['organizationName'] = 'O';
+_shortNames['OU'] = oids['organizationalUnitName'];
+_shortNames['organizationalUnitName'] = 'OU';
+_shortNames['E'] = oids['emailAddress'];
+_shortNames['emailAddress'] = 'E';
+
+// validator for an SubjectPublicKeyInfo structure
+// Note: Currently only works with an RSA public key
+var publicKeyValidator = forge.pki.rsa.publicKeyValidator;
+
+// validator for an X.509v3 certificate
+var x509CertificateValidator = {
+  name: 'Certificate',
+  tagClass: asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL,
+  type: asn1.Type.SEQUENCE,
+  constructed: true,
+  value: [{
+    name: 'Certificate.TBSCertificate',
+    tagClass: asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL,
+    type: asn1.Type.SEQUENCE,
+    constructed: true,
+    captureAsn1: 'tbsCertificate',
+    value: [{
+      name: 'Certificate.TBSCertificate.version',
+      tagClass: asn1.Class.CONTEXT_SPECIFIC,
+      type: 0,
+      constructed: true,
+      optional: true,
+      value: [{
+        name: 'Certificate.TBSCertificate.version.integer',
+        tagClass: asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL,
+        type: asn1.Type.INTEGER,
+        constructed: false,
+        capture: 'certVersion'
+      }]
+    }, {
+      name: 'Certificate.TBSCertificate.serialNumber',
+      tagClass: asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL,
+      type: asn1.Type.INTEGER,
+      constructed: false,
+      capture: 'certSerialNumber'
+    }, {
+      name: 'Certificate.TBSCertificate.signature',
+      tagClass: asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL,
+      type: asn1.Type.SEQUENCE,
+      constructed: true,
+      value: [{
+        name: 'Certificate.TBSCertificate.signature.algorithm',
+        tagClass: asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL,
+        type: asn1.Type.OID,
+        constructed: false,
+        capture: 'certinfoSignatureOid'
+      }, {
+        name: 'Certificate.TBSCertificate.signature.parameters',
+        tagClass: asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL,
+        optional: true,
+        captureAsn1: 'certinfoSignatureParams'
+      }]
+    }, {
+      name: 'Certificate.TBSCertificate.issuer',
+      tagClass: asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL,
+      type: asn1.Type.SEQUENCE,
+      constructed: true,
+      captureAsn1: 'certIssuer'
+    }, {
+      name: 'Certificate.TBSCertificate.validity',
+      tagClass: asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL,
+      type: asn1.Type.SEQUENCE,
+      constructed: true,
+      // Note: UTC and generalized times may both appear so the capture
+      // names are based on their detected order, the names used below
+      // are only for the common case, which validity time really means
+      // "notBefore" and which means "notAfter" will be determined by order
+      value: [{
+        // notBefore (Time) (UTC time case)
+        name: 'Certificate.TBSCertificate.validity.notBefore (utc)',
+        tagClass: asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL,
+        type: asn1.Type.UTCTIME,
+        constructed: false,
+        optional: true,
+        capture: 'certValidity1UTCTime'
+      }, {
+        // notBefore (Time) (generalized time case)
+        name: 'Certificate.TBSCertificate.validity.notBefore (generalized)',
+        tagClass: asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL,
+        type: asn1.Type.GENERALIZEDTIME,
+        constructed: false,
+        optional: true,
+        capture: 'certValidity2GeneralizedTime'
+      }, {
+        // notAfter (Time) (only UTC time is supported)
+        name: 'Certificate.TBSCertificate.validity.notAfter (utc)',
+        tagClass: asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL,
+        type: asn1.Type.UTCTIME,
+        constructed: false,
+        optional: true,
+        capture: 'certValidity3UTCTime'
+      }, {
+        // notAfter (Time) (only UTC time is supported)
+        name: 'Certificate.TBSCertificate.validity.notAfter (generalized)',
+        tagClass: asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL,
+        type: asn1.Type.GENERALIZEDTIME,
+        constructed: false,
+        optional: true,
+        capture: 'certValidity4GeneralizedTime'
+      }]
+    }, {
+      // Name (subject) (RDNSequence)
+      name: 'Certificate.TBSCertificate.subject',
+      tagClass: asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL,
+      type: asn1.Type.SEQUENCE,
+      constructed: true,
+      captureAsn1: 'certSubject'
+    },
+      // SubjectPublicKeyInfo
+      publicKeyValidator,
+    {
+      // issuerUniqueID (optional)
+      name: 'Certificate.TBSCertificate.issuerUniqueID',
+      tagClass: asn1.Class.CONTEXT_SPECIFIC,
+      type: 1,
+      constructed: true,
+      optional: true,
+      value: [{
+        name: 'Certificate.TBSCertificate.issuerUniqueID.id',
+        tagClass: asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL,
+        type: asn1.Type.BITSTRING,
+        constructed: false,
+        capture: 'certIssuerUniqueId'
+      }]
+    }, {
+      // subjectUniqueID (optional)
+      name: 'Certificate.TBSCertificate.subjectUniqueID',
+      tagClass: asn1.Class.CONTEXT_SPECIFIC,
+      type: 2,
+      constructed: true,
+      optional: true,
+      value: [{
+        name: 'Certificate.TBSCertificate.subjectUniqueID.id',
+        tagClass: asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL,
+        type: asn1.Type.BITSTRING,
+        constructed: false,
+        capture: 'certSubjectUniqueId'
+      }]
+    }, {
+      // Extensions (optional)
+      name: 'Certificate.TBSCertificate.extensions',
+      tagClass: asn1.Class.CONTEXT_SPECIFIC,
+      type: 3,
+      constructed: true,
+      captureAsn1: 'certExtensions',
+      optional: true
+    }]
+  }, {
+    // AlgorithmIdentifier (signature algorithm)
+    name: 'Certificate.signatureAlgorithm',
+    tagClass: asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL,
+    type: asn1.Type.SEQUENCE,
+    constructed: true,
+    value: [{
+      // algorithm
+      name: 'Certificate.signatureAlgorithm.algorithm',
+      tagClass: asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL,
+      type: asn1.Type.OID,
+      constructed: false,
+      capture: 'certSignatureOid'
+    }, {
+      name: 'Certificate.TBSCertificate.signature.parameters',
+      tagClass: asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL,
+      optional: true,
+      captureAsn1: 'certSignatureParams'
+    }]
+  }, {
+    // SignatureValue
+    name: 'Certificate.signatureValue',
+    tagClass: asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL,
+    type: asn1.Type.BITSTRING,
+    constructed: false,
+    capture: 'certSignature'
+  }]
+};
+
+var rsassaPssParameterValidator = {
+  name: 'rsapss',
+  tagClass: asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL,
+  type: asn1.Type.SEQUENCE,
+  constructed: true,
+  value: [{
+    name: 'rsapss.hashAlgorithm',
+    tagClass: asn1.Class.CONTEXT_SPECIFIC,
+    type: 0,
+    constructed: true,
+    value: [{
+      name: 'rsapss.hashAlgorithm.AlgorithmIdentifier',
+      tagClass: asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL,
+      type: asn1.Class.SEQUENCE,
+      constructed: true,
+      optional: true,
+      value: [{
+        name: 'rsapss.hashAlgorithm.AlgorithmIdentifier.algorithm',
+        tagClass: asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL,
+        type: asn1.Type.OID,
+        constructed: false,
+        capture: 'hashOid'
+        /* parameter block omitted, for SHA1 NULL anyhow. */
+      }]
+    }]
+  }, {
+    name: 'rsapss.maskGenAlgorithm',
+    tagClass: asn1.Class.CONTEXT_SPECIFIC,
+    type: 1,
+    constructed: true,
+    value: [{
+      name: 'rsapss.maskGenAlgorithm.AlgorithmIdentifier',
+      tagClass: asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL,
+      type: asn1.Class.SEQUENCE,
+      constructed: true,
+      optional: true,
+      value: [{
+        name: 'rsapss.maskGenAlgorithm.AlgorithmIdentifier.algorithm',
+        tagClass: asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL,
+        type: asn1.Type.OID,
+        constructed: false,
+        capture: 'maskGenOid'
+      }, {
+        name: 'rsapss.maskGenAlgorithm.AlgorithmIdentifier.params',
+        tagClass: asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL,
+        type: asn1.Type.SEQUENCE,
+        constructed: true,
+        value: [{
+          name: 'rsapss.maskGenAlgorithm.AlgorithmIdentifier.params.algorithm',
+          tagClass: asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL,
+          type: asn1.Type.OID,
+          constructed: false,
+          capture: 'maskGenHashOid'
+          /* parameter block omitted, for SHA1 NULL anyhow. */
+        }]
+      }]
+    }]
+  }, {
+    name: 'rsapss.saltLength',
+    tagClass: asn1.Class.CONTEXT_SPECIFIC,
+    type: 2,
+    optional: true,
+    value: [{
+      name: 'rsapss.saltLength.saltLength',
+      tagClass: asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL,
+      type: asn1.Class.INTEGER,
+      constructed: false,
+      capture: 'saltLength'
+    }]
+  }, {
+    name: 'rsapss.trailerField',
+    tagClass: asn1.Class.CONTEXT_SPECIFIC,
+    type: 3,
+    optional: true,
+    value: [{
+      name: 'rsapss.trailer.trailer',
+      tagClass: asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL,
+      type: asn1.Class.INTEGER,
+      constructed: false,
+      capture: 'trailer'
+    }]
+  }]
+};
+
+// validator for a CertificationRequestInfo structure
+var certificationRequestInfoValidator = {
+  name: 'CertificationRequestInfo',
+  tagClass: asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL,
+  type: asn1.Type.SEQUENCE,
+  constructed: true,
+  captureAsn1: 'certificationRequestInfo',
+  value: [{
+    name: 'CertificationRequestInfo.integer',
+    tagClass: asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL,
+    type: asn1.Type.INTEGER,
+    constructed: false,
+    capture: 'certificationRequestInfoVersion'
+  }, {
+    // Name (subject) (RDNSequence)
+    name: 'CertificationRequestInfo.subject',
+    tagClass: asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL,
+    type: asn1.Type.SEQUENCE,
+    constructed: true,
+    captureAsn1: 'certificationRequestInfoSubject'
+  },
+  // SubjectPublicKeyInfo
+  publicKeyValidator,
+  {
+    name: 'CertificationRequestInfo.attributes',
+    tagClass: asn1.Class.CONTEXT_SPECIFIC,
+    type: 0,
+    constructed: true,
+    optional: true,
+    capture: 'certificationRequestInfoAttributes',
+    value: [{
+      name: 'CertificationRequestInfo.attributes',
+      tagClass: asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL,
+      type: asn1.Type.SEQUENCE,
+      constructed: true,
+      value: [{
+        name: 'CertificationRequestInfo.attributes.type',
+        tagClass: asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL,
+        type: asn1.Type.OID,
+        constructed: false
+      }, {
+        name: 'CertificationRequestInfo.attributes.value',
+        tagClass: asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL,
+        type: asn1.Type.SET,
+        constructed: true
+      }]
+    }]
+  }]
+};
+
+// validator for a CertificationRequest structure
+var certificationRequestValidator = {
+  name: 'CertificationRequest',
+  tagClass: asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL,
+  type: asn1.Type.SEQUENCE,
+  constructed: true,
+  captureAsn1: 'csr',
+  value: [
+    certificationRequestInfoValidator, {
+    // AlgorithmIdentifier (signature algorithm)
+    name: 'CertificationRequest.signatureAlgorithm',
+    tagClass: asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL,
+    type: asn1.Type.SEQUENCE,
+    constructed: true,
+    value: [{
+      // algorithm
+      name: 'CertificationRequest.signatureAlgorithm.algorithm',
+      tagClass: asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL,
+      type: asn1.Type.OID,
+      constructed: false,
+      capture: 'csrSignatureOid'
+    }, {
+      name: 'CertificationRequest.signatureAlgorithm.parameters',
+      tagClass: asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL,
+      optional: true,
+      captureAsn1: 'csrSignatureParams'
+    }]
+  }, {
+    // signature
+    name: 'CertificationRequest.signature',
+    tagClass: asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL,
+    type: asn1.Type.BITSTRING,
+    constructed: false,
+    capture: 'csrSignature'
+  }]
+};
+
+/**
+ * Converts an RDNSequence of ASN.1 DER-encoded RelativeDistinguishedName
+ * sets into an array with objects that have type and value properties.
+ *
+ * @param rdn the RDNSequence to convert.
+ * @param md a message digest to append type and value to if provided.
+ */
+pki.RDNAttributesAsArray = function(rdn, md) {
+  var rval = [];
+
+  // each value in 'rdn' in is a SET of RelativeDistinguishedName
+  var set, attr, obj;
+  for(var si = 0; si < rdn.value.length; ++si) {
+    // get the RelativeDistinguishedName set
+    set = rdn.value[si];
+
+    // each value in the SET is an AttributeTypeAndValue sequence
+    // containing first a type (an OID) and second a value (defined by
+    // the OID)
+    for(var i = 0; i < set.value.length; ++i) {
+      obj = {};
+      attr = set.value[i];
+      obj.type = asn1.derToOid(attr.value[0].value);
+      obj.value = attr.value[1].value;
+      obj.valueTagClass = attr.value[1].type;
+      // if the OID is known, get its name and short name
+      if(obj.type in oids) {
+        obj.name = oids[obj.type];
+        if(obj.name in _shortNames) {
+          obj.shortName = _shortNames[obj.name];
+        }
+      }
+      if(md) {
+        md.update(obj.type);
+        md.update(obj.value);
+      }
+      rval.push(obj);
+    }
+  }
+
+  return rval;
+};
+
+/**
+ * Converts ASN.1 CRIAttributes into an array with objects that have type and
+ * value properties.
+ *
+ * @param attributes the CRIAttributes to convert.
+ */
+pki.CRIAttributesAsArray = function(attributes) {
+  var rval = [];
+
+  // each value in 'attributes' in is a SEQUENCE with an OID and a SET
+  for(var si = 0; si < attributes.length; ++si) {
+    // get the attribute sequence
+    var seq = attributes[si];
+
+    // each value in the SEQUENCE containing first a type (an OID) and
+    // second a set of values (defined by the OID)
+    var type = asn1.derToOid(seq.value[0].value);
+    var values = seq.value[1].value;
+    for(var vi = 0; vi < values.length; ++vi) {
+      var obj = {};
+      obj.type = type;
+      obj.value = values[vi].value;
+      obj.valueTagClass = values[vi].type;
+      // if the OID is known, get its name and short name
+      if(obj.type in oids) {
+        obj.name = oids[obj.type];
+        if(obj.name in _shortNames) {
+          obj.shortName = _shortNames[obj.name];
+        }
+      }
+      // parse extensions
+      if(obj.type === oids.extensionRequest) {
+        obj.extensions = [];
+        for(var ei = 0; ei < obj.value.length; ++ei) {
+          obj.extensions.push(pki.certificateExtensionFromAsn1(obj.value[ei]));
+        }
+      }
+      rval.push(obj);
+    }
+  }
+
+  return rval;
+};
+
+/**
+ * Gets an issuer or subject attribute from its name, type, or short name.
+ *
+ * @param obj the issuer or subject object.
+ * @param options a short name string or an object with:
+ *          shortName the short name for the attribute.
+ *          name the name for the attribute.
+ *          type the type for the attribute.
+ *
+ * @return the attribute.
+ */
+function _getAttribute(obj, options) {
+  if(typeof options === 'string') {
+    options = {shortName: options};
+  }
+
+  var rval = null;
+  var attr;
+  for(var i = 0; rval === null && i < obj.attributes.length; ++i) {
+    attr = obj.attributes[i];
+    if(options.type && options.type === attr.type) {
+      rval = attr;
+    } else if(options.name && options.name === attr.name) {
+      rval = attr;
+    } else if(options.shortName && options.shortName === attr.shortName) {
+      rval = attr;
+    }
+  }
+  return rval;
+}
+
+/**
+ * Converts signature parameters from ASN.1 structure.
+ *
+ * Currently only RSASSA-PSS supported.  The PKCS#1 v1.5 signature scheme had
+ * no parameters.
+ *
+ * RSASSA-PSS-params  ::=  SEQUENCE  {
+ *   hashAlgorithm      [0] HashAlgorithm DEFAULT
+ *                             sha1Identifier,
+ *   maskGenAlgorithm   [1] MaskGenAlgorithm DEFAULT
+ *                             mgf1SHA1Identifier,
+ *   saltLength         [2] INTEGER DEFAULT 20,
+ *   trailerField       [3] INTEGER DEFAULT 1
+ * }
+ *
+ * HashAlgorithm  ::=  AlgorithmIdentifier
+ *
+ * MaskGenAlgorithm  ::=  AlgorithmIdentifier
+ *
+ * AlgorithmIdentifer ::= SEQUENCE {
+ *   algorithm OBJECT IDENTIFIER,
+ *   parameters ANY DEFINED BY algorithm OPTIONAL
+ * }
+ *
+ * @param oid The OID specifying the signature algorithm
+ * @param obj The ASN.1 structure holding the parameters
+ * @param fillDefaults Whether to use return default values where omitted
+ * @return signature parameter object
+ */
+var _readSignatureParameters = function(oid, obj, fillDefaults) {
+  var params = {};
+
+  if(oid !== oids['RSASSA-PSS']) {
+    return params;
+  }
+
+  if(fillDefaults) {
+    params = {
+      hash: {
+        algorithmOid: oids['sha1']
+      },
+      mgf: {
+        algorithmOid: oids['mgf1'],
+        hash: {
+          algorithmOid: oids['sha1']
+        }
+      },
+      saltLength: 20
+    };
+  }
+
+  var capture = {};
+  var errors = [];
+  if(!asn1.validate(obj, rsassaPssParameterValidator, capture, errors)) {
+    var error = new Error('Cannot read RSASSA-PSS parameter block.');
+    error.errors = errors;
+    throw error;
+  }
+
+  if(capture.hashOid !== undefined) {
+    params.hash = params.hash || {};
+    params.hash.algorithmOid = asn1.derToOid(capture.hashOid);
+  }
+
+  if(capture.maskGenOid !== undefined) {
+    params.mgf = params.mgf || {};
+    params.mgf.algorithmOid = asn1.derToOid(capture.maskGenOid);
+    params.mgf.hash = params.mgf.hash || {};
+    params.mgf.hash.algorithmOid = asn1.derToOid(capture.maskGenHashOid);
+  }
+
+  if(capture.saltLength !== undefined) {
+    params.saltLength = capture.saltLength.charCodeAt(0);
+  }
+
+  return params;
+};
+
+/**
+ * Converts an X.509 certificate from PEM format.
+ *
+ * Note: If the certificate is to be verified then compute hash should
+ * be set to true. This will scan the TBSCertificate part of the ASN.1
+ * object while it is converted so it doesn't need to be converted back
+ * to ASN.1-DER-encoding later.
+ *
+ * @param pem the PEM-formatted certificate.
+ * @param computeHash true to compute the hash for verification.
+ * @param strict true to be strict when checking ASN.1 value lengths, false to
+ *          allow truncated values (default: true).
+ *
+ * @return the certificate.
+ */
+pki.certificateFromPem = function(pem, computeHash, strict) {
+  var msg = forge.pem.decode(pem)[0];
+
+  if(msg.type !== 'CERTIFICATE' &&
+    msg.type !== 'X509 CERTIFICATE' &&
+    msg.type !== 'TRUSTED CERTIFICATE') {
+    var error = new Error('Could not convert certificate from PEM; PEM header type ' +
+      'is not "CERTIFICATE", "X509 CERTIFICATE", or "TRUSTED CERTIFICATE".');
+    error.headerType = msg.type;
+    throw error;
+  }
+  if(msg.procType && msg.procType.type === 'ENCRYPTED') {
+    throw new Error('Could not convert certificate from PEM; PEM is encrypted.');
+  }
+
+  // convert DER to ASN.1 object
+  var obj = asn1.fromDer(msg.body, strict);
+
+  return pki.certificateFromAsn1(obj, computeHash);
+};
+
+/**
+ * Converts an X.509 certificate to PEM format.
+ *
+ * @param cert the certificate.
+ * @param maxline the maximum characters per line, defaults to 64.
+ *
+ * @return the PEM-formatted certificate.
+ */
+pki.certificateToPem = function(cert, maxline) {
+  // convert to ASN.1, then DER, then PEM-encode
+  var msg = {
+    type: 'CERTIFICATE',
+    body: asn1.toDer(pki.certificateToAsn1(cert)).getBytes()
+  };
+  return forge.pem.encode(msg, {maxline: maxline});
+};
+
+/**
+ * Converts an RSA public key from PEM format.
+ *
+ * @param pem the PEM-formatted public key.
+ *
+ * @return the public key.
+ */
+pki.publicKeyFromPem = function(pem) {
+  var msg = forge.pem.decode(pem)[0];
+
+  if(msg.type !== 'PUBLIC KEY' && msg.type !== 'RSA PUBLIC KEY') {
+    var error = new Error('Could not convert public key from PEM; PEM header ' +
+      'type is not "PUBLIC KEY" or "RSA PUBLIC KEY".');
+    error.headerType = msg.type;
+    throw error;
+  }
+  if(msg.procType && msg.procType.type === 'ENCRYPTED') {
+    throw new Error('Could not convert public key from PEM; PEM is encrypted.');
+  }
+
+  // convert DER to ASN.1 object
+  var obj = asn1.fromDer(msg.body);
+
+  return pki.publicKeyFromAsn1(obj);
+};
+
+/**
+ * Converts an RSA public key to PEM format (using a SubjectPublicKeyInfo).
+ *
+ * @param key the public key.
+ * @param maxline the maximum characters per line, defaults to 64.
+ *
+ * @return the PEM-formatted public key.
+ */
+pki.publicKeyToPem = function(key, maxline) {
+  // convert to ASN.1, then DER, then PEM-encode
+  var msg = {
+    type: 'PUBLIC KEY',
+    body: asn1.toDer(pki.publicKeyToAsn1(key)).getBytes()
+  };
+  return forge.pem.encode(msg, {maxline: maxline});
+};
+
+/**
+ * Converts an RSA public key to PEM format (using an RSAPublicKey).
+ *
+ * @param key the public key.
+ * @param maxline the maximum characters per line, defaults to 64.
+ *
+ * @return the PEM-formatted public key.
+ */
+pki.publicKeyToRSAPublicKeyPem = function(key, maxline) {
+  // convert to ASN.1, then DER, then PEM-encode
+  var msg = {
+    type: 'RSA PUBLIC KEY',
+    body: asn1.toDer(pki.publicKeyToRSAPublicKey(key)).getBytes()
+  };
+  return forge.pem.encode(msg, {maxline: maxline});
+};
+
+/**
+ * Gets a fingerprint for the given public key.
+ *
+ * @param options the options to use.
+ *          [md] the message digest object to use (defaults to forge.md.sha1).
+ *          [type] the type of fingerprint, such as 'RSAPublicKey',
+ *            'SubjectPublicKeyInfo' (defaults to 'RSAPublicKey').
+ *          [encoding] an alternative output encoding, such as 'hex'
+ *            (defaults to none, outputs a byte buffer).
+ *          [delimiter] the delimiter to use between bytes for 'hex' encoded
+ *            output, eg: ':' (defaults to none).
+ *
+ * @return the fingerprint as a byte buffer or other encoding based on options.
+ */
+pki.getPublicKeyFingerprint = function(key, options) {
+  options = options || {};
+  var md = options.md || forge.md.sha1.create();
+  var type = options.type || 'RSAPublicKey';
+
+  var bytes;
+  switch(type) {
+  case 'RSAPublicKey':
+    bytes = asn1.toDer(pki.publicKeyToRSAPublicKey(key)).getBytes();
+    break;
+  case 'SubjectPublicKeyInfo':
+    bytes = asn1.toDer(pki.publicKeyToAsn1(key)).getBytes();
+    break;
+  default:
+    throw new Error('Unknown fingerprint type "' + options.type + '".');
+  }
+
+  // hash public key bytes
+  md.start();
+  md.update(bytes);
+  var digest = md.digest();
+  if(options.encoding === 'hex') {
+    var hex = digest.toHex();
+    if(options.delimiter) {
+      return hex.match(/.{2}/g).join(options.delimiter);
+    }
+    return hex;
+  } else if(options.encoding === 'binary') {
+    return digest.getBytes();
+  } else if(options.encoding) {
+    throw new Error('Unknown encoding "' + options.encoding + '".');
+  }
+  return digest;
+};
+
+/**
+ * Converts a PKCS#10 certification request (CSR) from PEM format.
+ *
+ * Note: If the certification request is to be verified then compute hash
+ * should be set to true. This will scan the CertificationRequestInfo part of
+ * the ASN.1 object while it is converted so it doesn't need to be converted
+ * back to ASN.1-DER-encoding later.
+ *
+ * @param pem the PEM-formatted certificate.
+ * @param computeHash true to compute the hash for verification.
+ * @param strict true to be strict when checking ASN.1 value lengths, false to
+ *          allow truncated values (default: true).
+ *
+ * @return the certification request (CSR).
+ */
+pki.certificationRequestFromPem = function(pem, computeHash, strict) {
+  var msg = forge.pem.decode(pem)[0];
+
+  if(msg.type !== 'CERTIFICATE REQUEST') {
+    var error = new Error('Could not convert certification request from PEM; ' +
+      'PEM header type is not "CERTIFICATE REQUEST".');
+    error.headerType = msg.type;
+    throw error;
+  }
+  if(msg.procType && msg.procType.type === 'ENCRYPTED') {
+    throw new Error('Could not convert certification request from PEM; ' +
+      'PEM is encrypted.');
+  }
+
+  // convert DER to ASN.1 object
+  var obj = asn1.fromDer(msg.body, strict);
+
+  return pki.certificationRequestFromAsn1(obj, computeHash);
+};
+
+/**
+ * Converts a PKCS#10 certification request (CSR) to PEM format.
+ *
+ * @param csr the certification request.
+ * @param maxline the maximum characters per line, defaults to 64.
+ *
+ * @return the PEM-formatted certification request.
+ */
+pki.certificationRequestToPem = function(csr, maxline) {
+  // convert to ASN.1, then DER, then PEM-encode
+  var msg = {
+    type: 'CERTIFICATE REQUEST',
+    body: asn1.toDer(pki.certificationRequestToAsn1(csr)).getBytes()
+  };
+  return forge.pem.encode(msg, {maxline: maxline});
+};
+
+/**
+ * Creates an empty X.509v3 RSA certificate.
+ *
+ * @return the certificate.
+ */
+pki.createCertificate = function() {
+  var cert = {};
+  cert.version = 0x02;
+  cert.serialNumber = '00';
+  cert.signatureOid = null;
+  cert.signature = null;
+  cert.siginfo = {};
+  cert.siginfo.algorithmOid = null;
+  cert.validity = {};
+  cert.validity.notBefore = new Date();
+  cert.validity.notAfter = new Date();
+
+  cert.issuer = {};
+  cert.issuer.getField = function(sn) {
+    return _getAttribute(cert.issuer, sn);
+  };
+  cert.issuer.addField = function(attr) {
+    _fillMissingFields([attr]);
+    cert.issuer.attributes.push(attr);
+  };
+  cert.issuer.attributes = [];
+  cert.issuer.hash = null;
+
+  cert.subject = {};
+  cert.subject.getField = function(sn) {
+    return _getAttribute(cert.subject, sn);
+  };
+  cert.subject.addField = function(attr) {
+    _fillMissingFields([attr]);
+    cert.subject.attributes.push(attr);
+  };
+  cert.subject.attributes = [];
+  cert.subject.hash = null;
+
+  cert.extensions = [];
+  cert.publicKey = null;
+  cert.md = null;
+
+  /**
+   * Sets the subject of this certificate.
+   *
+   * @param attrs the array of subject attributes to use.
+   * @param uniqueId an optional a unique ID to use.
+   */
+  cert.setSubject = function(attrs, uniqueId) {
+    // set new attributes, clear hash
+    _fillMissingFields(attrs);
+    cert.subject.attributes = attrs;
+    delete cert.subject.uniqueId;
+    if(uniqueId) {
+      cert.subject.uniqueId = uniqueId;
+    }
+    cert.subject.hash = null;
+  };
+
+  /**
+   * Sets the issuer of this certificate.
+   *
+   * @param attrs the array of issuer attributes to use.
+   * @param uniqueId an optional a unique ID to use.
+   */
+  cert.setIssuer = function(attrs, uniqueId) {
+    // set new attributes, clear hash
+    _fillMissingFields(attrs);
+    cert.issuer.attributes = attrs;
+    delete cert.issuer.uniqueId;
+    if(uniqueId) {
+      cert.issuer.uniqueId = uniqueId;
+    }
+    cert.issuer.hash = null;
+  };
+
+  /**
+   * Sets the extensions of this certificate.
+   *
+   * @param exts the array of extensions to use.
+   */
+  cert.setExtensions = function(exts) {
+    for(var i = 0; i < exts.length; ++i) {
+      _fillMissingExtensionFields(exts[i], {cert: cert});
+    }
+    // set new extensions
+    cert.extensions = exts;
+  };
+
+  /**
+   * Gets an extension by its name or id.
+   *
+   * @param options the name to use or an object with:
+   *          name the name to use.
+   *          id the id to use.
+   *
+   * @return the extension or null if not found.
+   */
+  cert.getExtension = function(options) {
+    if(typeof options === 'string') {
+      options = {name: options};
+    }
+
+    var rval = null;
+    var ext;
+    for(var i = 0; rval === null && i < cert.extensions.length; ++i) {
+      ext = cert.extensions[i];
+      if(options.id && ext.id === options.id) {
+        rval = ext;
+      } else if(options.name && ext.name === options.name) {
+        rval = ext;
+      }
+    }
+    return rval;
+  };
+
+  /**
+   * Signs this certificate using the given private key.
+   *
+   * @param key the private key to sign with.
+   * @param md the message digest object to use (defaults to forge.md.sha1).
+   */
+  cert.sign = function(key, md) {
+    // TODO: get signature OID from private key
+    cert.md = md || forge.md.sha1.create();
+    var algorithmOid = oids[cert.md.algorithm + 'WithRSAEncryption'];
+    if(!algorithmOid) {
+      var error = new Error('Could not compute certificate digest. ' +
+        'Unknown message digest algorithm OID.');
+      error.algorithm = cert.md.algorithm;
+      throw error;
+    }
+    cert.signatureOid = cert.siginfo.algorithmOid = algorithmOid;
+
+    // get TBSCertificate, convert to DER
+    cert.tbsCertificate = pki.getTBSCertificate(cert);
+    var bytes = asn1.toDer(cert.tbsCertificate);
+
+    // digest and sign
+    cert.md.update(bytes.getBytes());
+    cert.signature = key.sign(cert.md);
+  };
+
+  /**
+   * Attempts verify the signature on the passed certificate using this
+   * certificate's public key.
+   *
+   * @param child the certificate to verify.
+   *
+   * @return true if verified, false if not.
+   */
+  cert.verify = function(child) {
+    var rval = false;
+
+    if(!cert.issued(child)) {
+      var issuer = child.issuer;
+      var subject = cert.subject;
+      var error = new Error('The parent certificate did not issue the given child ' +
+        'certificate; the child certificate\'s issuer does not match the ' +
+        'parent\'s subject.');
+      error.expectedIssuer = issuer.attributes;
+      error.actualIssuer = subject.attributes;
+      throw error;
+    }
+
+    var md = child.md;
+    if(md === null) {
+      // check signature OID for supported signature types
+      if(child.signatureOid in oids) {
+        var oid = oids[child.signatureOid];
+        switch(oid) {
+        case 'sha1WithRSAEncryption':
+          md = forge.md.sha1.create();
+          break;
+        case 'md5WithRSAEncryption':
+          md = forge.md.md5.create();
+          break;
+        case 'sha256WithRSAEncryption':
+          md = forge.md.sha256.create();
+          break;
+        case 'RSASSA-PSS':
+          md = forge.md.sha256.create();
+          break;
+        }
+      }
+      if(md === null) {
+        var error = new Error('Could not compute certificate digest. ' +
+          'Unknown signature OID.');
+        error.signatureOid = child.signatureOid;
+        throw error;
+      }
+
+      // produce DER formatted TBSCertificate and digest it
+      var tbsCertificate = child.tbsCertificate || pki.getTBSCertificate(child);
+      var bytes = asn1.toDer(tbsCertificate);
+      md.update(bytes.getBytes());
+    }
+
+    if(md !== null) {
+      var scheme;
+
+      switch(child.signatureOid) {
+      case oids.sha1WithRSAEncryption:
+        scheme = undefined;  /* use PKCS#1 v1.5 padding scheme */
+        break;
+      case oids['RSASSA-PSS']:
+        var hash, mgf;
+
+        /* initialize mgf */
+        hash = oids[child.signatureParameters.mgf.hash.algorithmOid];
+        if(hash === undefined || forge.md[hash] === undefined) {
+          var error = new Error('Unsupported MGF hash function.');
+          error.oid = child.signatureParameters.mgf.hash.algorithmOid;
+          error.name = hash;
+          throw error;
+        }
+
+        mgf = oids[child.signatureParameters.mgf.algorithmOid];
+        if(mgf === undefined || forge.mgf[mgf] === undefined) {
+          var error = new Error('Unsupported MGF function.');
+          error.oid = child.signatureParameters.mgf.algorithmOid;
+          error.name = mgf;
+          throw error;
+        }
+
+        mgf = forge.mgf[mgf].create(forge.md[hash].create());
+
+        /* initialize hash function */
+        hash = oids[child.signatureParameters.hash.algorithmOid];
+        if(hash === undefined || forge.md[hash] === undefined) {
+          throw {
+            message: 'Unsupported RSASSA-PSS hash function.',
+            oid: child.signatureParameters.hash.algorithmOid,
+            name: hash
+          };
+        }
+
+        scheme = forge.pss.create(forge.md[hash].create(), mgf,
+          child.signatureParameters.saltLength);
+        break;
+      }
+
+      // verify signature on cert using public key
+      rval = cert.publicKey.verify(
+        md.digest().getBytes(), child.signature, scheme);
+    }
+
+    return rval;
+  };
+
+  /**
+   * Returns true if this certificate's issuer matches the passed
+   * certificate's subject. Note that no signature check is performed.
+   *
+   * @param parent the certificate to check.
+   *
+   * @return true if this certificate's issuer matches the passed certificate's
+   *         subject.
+   */
+  cert.isIssuer = function(parent) {
+    var rval = false;
+
+    var i = cert.issuer;
+    var s = parent.subject;
+
+    // compare hashes if present
+    if(i.hash && s.hash) {
+      rval = (i.hash === s.hash);
+    } else if(i.attributes.length === s.attributes.length) {
+      // all attributes are the same so issuer matches subject
+      rval = true;
+      var iattr, sattr;
+      for(var n = 0; rval && n < i.attributes.length; ++n) {
+        iattr = i.attributes[n];
+        sattr = s.attributes[n];
+        if(iattr.type !== sattr.type || iattr.value !== sattr.value) {
+          // attribute mismatch
+          rval = false;
+        }
+      }
+    }
+
+    return rval;
+  };
+
+  /**
+   * Returns true if this certificate's subject matches the issuer of the
+   * given certificate). Note that not signature check is performed.
+   *
+   * @param child the certificate to check.
+   *
+   * @return true if this certificate's subject matches the passed
+   *         certificate's issuer.
+   */
+  cert.issued = function(child) {
+    return child.isIssuer(cert);
+  };
+
+  /**
+   * Generates the subjectKeyIdentifier for this certificate as byte buffer.
+   *
+   * @return the subjectKeyIdentifier for this certificate as byte buffer.
+   */
+  cert.generateSubjectKeyIdentifier = function() {
+    /* See: 4.2.1.2 section of the the RFC3280, keyIdentifier is either:
+
+      (1) The keyIdentifier is composed of the 160-bit SHA-1 hash of the
+        value of the BIT STRING subjectPublicKey (excluding the tag,
+        length, and number of unused bits).
+
+      (2) The keyIdentifier is composed of a four bit type field with
+        the value 0100 followed by the least significant 60 bits of the
+        SHA-1 hash of the value of the BIT STRING subjectPublicKey
+        (excluding the tag, length, and number of unused bit string bits).
+    */
+
+    // skipping the tag, length, and number of unused bits is the same
+    // as just using the RSAPublicKey (for RSA keys, which are the
+    // only ones supported)
+    return pki.getPublicKeyFingerprint(cert.publicKey, {type: 'RSAPublicKey'});
+  };
+
+  /**
+   * Verifies the subjectKeyIdentifier extension value for this certificate
+   * against its public key. If no extension is found, false will be
+   * returned.
+   *
+   * @return true if verified, false if not.
+   */
+  cert.verifySubjectKeyIdentifier = function() {
+    var oid = oids['subjectKeyIdentifier'];
+    for(var i = 0; i < cert.extensions.length; ++i) {
+      var ext = cert.extensions[i];
+      if(ext.id === oid) {
+        var ski = cert.generateSubjectKeyIdentifier().getBytes();
+        return (forge.util.hexToBytes(ext.subjectKeyIdentifier) === ski);
+      }
+    }
+    return false;
+  };
+
+  return cert;
+};
+
+/**
+ * Converts an X.509v3 RSA certificate from an ASN.1 object.
+ *
+ * Note: If the certificate is to be verified then compute hash should
+ * be set to true. There is currently no implementation for converting
+ * a certificate back to ASN.1 so the TBSCertificate part of the ASN.1
+ * object needs to be scanned before the cert object is created.
+ *
+ * @param obj the asn1 representation of an X.509v3 RSA certificate.
+ * @param computeHash true to compute the hash for verification.
+ *
+ * @return the certificate.
+ */
+pki.certificateFromAsn1 = function(obj, computeHash) {
+  // validate certificate and capture data
+  var capture = {};
+  var errors = [];
+  if(!asn1.validate(obj, x509CertificateValidator, capture, errors)) {
+    var error = new Error('Cannot read X.509 certificate. ' +
+      'ASN.1 object is not an X509v3 Certificate.');
+    error.errors = errors;
+    throw error;
+  }
+
+  // ensure signature is not interpreted as an embedded ASN.1 object
+  if(typeof capture.certSignature !== 'string') {
+    var certSignature = '\x00';
+    for(var i = 0; i < capture.certSignature.length; ++i) {
+      certSignature += asn1.toDer(capture.certSignature[i]).getBytes();
+    }
+    capture.certSignature = certSignature;
+  }
+
+  // get oid
+  var oid = asn1.derToOid(capture.publicKeyOid);
+  if(oid !== pki.oids['rsaEncryption']) {
+    throw new Error('Cannot read public key. OID is not RSA.');
+  }
+
+  // create certificate
+  var cert = pki.createCertificate();
+  cert.version = capture.certVersion ?
+    capture.certVersion.charCodeAt(0) : 0;
+  var serial = forge.util.createBuffer(capture.certSerialNumber);
+  cert.serialNumber = serial.toHex();
+  cert.signatureOid = forge.asn1.derToOid(capture.certSignatureOid);
+  cert.signatureParameters = _readSignatureParameters(
+    cert.signatureOid, capture.certSignatureParams, true);
+  cert.siginfo.algorithmOid = forge.asn1.derToOid(capture.certinfoSignatureOid);
+  cert.siginfo.parameters = _readSignatureParameters(cert.siginfo.algorithmOid,
+    capture.certinfoSignatureParams, false);
+  // skip "unused bits" in signature value BITSTRING
+  var signature = forge.util.createBuffer(capture.certSignature);
+  ++signature.read;
+  cert.signature = signature.getBytes();
+
+  var validity = [];
+  if(capture.certValidity1UTCTime !== undefined) {
+    validity.push(asn1.utcTimeToDate(capture.certValidity1UTCTime));
+  }
+  if(capture.certValidity2GeneralizedTime !== undefined) {
+    validity.push(asn1.generalizedTimeToDate(
+      capture.certValidity2GeneralizedTime));
+  }
+  if(capture.certValidity3UTCTime !== undefined) {
+    validity.push(asn1.utcTimeToDate(capture.certValidity3UTCTime));
+  }
+  if(capture.certValidity4GeneralizedTime !== undefined) {
+    validity.push(asn1.generalizedTimeToDate(
+      capture.certValidity4GeneralizedTime));
+  }
+  if(validity.length > 2) {
+    throw new Error('Cannot read notBefore/notAfter validity times; more ' +
+      'than two times were provided in the certificate.');
+  }
+  if(validity.length < 2) {
+    throw new Error('Cannot read notBefore/notAfter validity times; they ' +
+      'were not provided as either UTCTime or GeneralizedTime.');
+  }
+  cert.validity.notBefore = validity[0];
+  cert.validity.notAfter = validity[1];
+
+  // keep TBSCertificate to preserve signature when exporting
+  cert.tbsCertificate = capture.tbsCertificate;
+
+  if(computeHash) {
+    // check signature OID for supported signature types
+    cert.md = null;
+    if(cert.signatureOid in oids) {
+      var oid = oids[cert.signatureOid];
+      switch(oid) {
+      case 'sha1WithRSAEncryption':
+        cert.md = forge.md.sha1.create();
+        break;
+      case 'md5WithRSAEncryption':
+        cert.md = forge.md.md5.create();
+        break;
+      case 'sha256WithRSAEncryption':
+        cert.md = forge.md.sha256.create();
+        break;
+      case 'RSASSA-PSS':
+        cert.md = forge.md.sha256.create();
+        break;
+      }
+    }
+    if(cert.md === null) {
+      var error = new Error('Could not compute certificate digest. ' +
+        'Unknown signature OID.');
+      error.signatureOid = cert.signatureOid;
+      throw error;
+    }
+
+    // produce DER formatted TBSCertificate and digest it
+    var bytes = asn1.toDer(cert.tbsCertificate);
+    cert.md.update(bytes.getBytes());
+  }
+
+  // handle issuer, build issuer message digest
+  var imd = forge.md.sha1.create();
+  cert.issuer.getField = function(sn) {
+    return _getAttribute(cert.issuer, sn);
+  };
+  cert.issuer.addField = function(attr) {
+    _fillMissingFields([attr]);
+    cert.issuer.attributes.push(attr);
+  };
+  cert.issuer.attributes = pki.RDNAttributesAsArray(capture.certIssuer, imd);
+  if(capture.certIssuerUniqueId) {
+    cert.issuer.uniqueId = capture.certIssuerUniqueId;
+  }
+  cert.issuer.hash = imd.digest().toHex();
+
+  // handle subject, build subject message digest
+  var smd = forge.md.sha1.create();
+  cert.subject.getField = function(sn) {
+    return _getAttribute(cert.subject, sn);
+  };
+  cert.subject.addField = function(attr) {
+    _fillMissingFields([attr]);
+    cert.subject.attributes.push(attr);
+  };
+  cert.subject.attributes = pki.RDNAttributesAsArray(capture.certSubject, smd);
+  if(capture.certSubjectUniqueId) {
+    cert.subject.uniqueId = capture.certSubjectUniqueId;
+  }
+  cert.subject.hash = smd.digest().toHex();
+
+  // handle extensions
+  if(capture.certExtensions) {
+    cert.extensions = pki.certificateExtensionsFromAsn1(capture.certExtensions);
+  } else {
+    cert.extensions = [];
+  }
+
+  // convert RSA public key from ASN.1
+  cert.publicKey = pki.publicKeyFromAsn1(capture.subjectPublicKeyInfo);
+
+  return cert;
+};
+
+/**
+ * Converts an ASN.1 extensions object (with extension sequences as its
+ * values) into an array of extension objects with types and values.
+ *
+ * Supported extensions:
+ *
+ * id-ce-keyUsage OBJECT IDENTIFIER ::=  { id-ce 15 }
+ * KeyUsage ::= BIT STRING {
+ *   digitalSignature        (0),
+ *   nonRepudiation          (1),
+ *   keyEncipherment         (2),
+ *   dataEncipherment        (3),
+ *   keyAgreement            (4),
+ *   keyCertSign             (5),
+ *   cRLSign                 (6),
+ *   encipherOnly            (7),
+ *   decipherOnly            (8)
+ * }
+ *
+ * id-ce-basicConstraints OBJECT IDENTIFIER ::=  { id-ce 19 }
+ * BasicConstraints ::= SEQUENCE {
+ *   cA                      BOOLEAN DEFAULT FALSE,
+ *   pathLenConstraint       INTEGER (0..MAX) OPTIONAL
+ * }
+ *
+ * subjectAltName EXTENSION ::= {
+ *   SYNTAX GeneralNames
+ *   IDENTIFIED BY id-ce-subjectAltName
+ * }
+ *
+ * GeneralNames ::= SEQUENCE SIZE (1..MAX) OF GeneralName
+ *
+ * GeneralName ::= CHOICE {
+ *   otherName      [0] INSTANCE OF OTHER-NAME,
+ *   rfc822Name     [1] IA5String,
+ *   dNSName        [2] IA5String,
+ *   x400Address    [3] ORAddress,
+ *   directoryName  [4] Name,
+ *   ediPartyName   [5] EDIPartyName,
+ *   uniformResourceIdentifier [6] IA5String,
+ *   IPAddress      [7] OCTET STRING,
+ *   registeredID   [8] OBJECT IDENTIFIER
+ * }
+ *
+ * OTHER-NAME ::= TYPE-IDENTIFIER
+ *
+ * EDIPartyName ::= SEQUENCE {
+ *   nameAssigner [0] DirectoryString {ub-name} OPTIONAL,
+ *   partyName    [1] DirectoryString {ub-name}
+ * }
+ *
+ * @param exts the extensions ASN.1 with extension sequences to parse.
+ *
+ * @return the array.
+ */
+pki.certificateExtensionsFromAsn1 = function(exts) {
+  var rval = [];
+  for(var i = 0; i < exts.value.length; ++i) {
+    // get extension sequence
+    var extseq = exts.value[i];
+    for(var ei = 0; ei < extseq.value.length; ++ei) {
+      rval.push(pki.certificateExtensionFromAsn1(extseq.value[ei]));
+    }
+  }
+
+  return rval;
+};
+
+/**
+ * Parses a single certificate extension from ASN.1.
+ *
+ * @param ext the extension in ASN.1 format.
+ *
+ * @return the parsed extension as an object.
+ */
+pki.certificateExtensionFromAsn1 = function(ext) {
+  // an extension has:
+  // [0] extnID      OBJECT IDENTIFIER
+  // [1] critical    BOOLEAN DEFAULT FALSE
+  // [2] extnValue   OCTET STRING
+  var e = {};
+  e.id = asn1.derToOid(ext.value[0].value);
+  e.critical = false;
+  if(ext.value[1].type === asn1.Type.BOOLEAN) {
+    e.critical = (ext.value[1].value.charCodeAt(0) !== 0x00);
+    e.value = ext.value[2].value;
+  } else {
+    e.value = ext.value[1].value;
+  }
+  // if the oid is known, get its name
+  if(e.id in oids) {
+    e.name = oids[e.id];
+
+    // handle key usage
+    if(e.name === 'keyUsage') {
+      // get value as BIT STRING
+      var ev = asn1.fromDer(e.value);
+      var b2 = 0x00;
+      var b3 = 0x00;
+      if(ev.value.length > 1) {
+        // skip first byte, just indicates unused bits which
+        // will be padded with 0s anyway
+        // get bytes with flag bits
+        b2 = ev.value.charCodeAt(1);
+        b3 = ev.value.length > 2 ? ev.value.charCodeAt(2) : 0;
+      }
+      // set flags
+      e.digitalSignature = (b2 & 0x80) === 0x80;
+      e.nonRepudiation = (b2 & 0x40) === 0x40;
+      e.keyEncipherment = (b2 & 0x20) === 0x20;
+      e.dataEncipherment = (b2 & 0x10) === 0x10;
+      e.keyAgreement = (b2 & 0x08) === 0x08;
+      e.keyCertSign = (b2 & 0x04) === 0x04;
+      e.cRLSign = (b2 & 0x02) === 0x02;
+      e.encipherOnly = (b2 & 0x01) === 0x01;
+      e.decipherOnly = (b3 & 0x80) === 0x80;
+    } else if(e.name === 'basicConstraints') {
+      // handle basic constraints
+      // get value as SEQUENCE
+      var ev = asn1.fromDer(e.value);
+      // get cA BOOLEAN flag (defaults to false)
+      if(ev.value.length > 0 && ev.value[0].type === asn1.Type.BOOLEAN) {
+        e.cA = (ev.value[0].value.charCodeAt(0) !== 0x00);
+      } else {
+        e.cA = false;
+      }
+      // get path length constraint
+      var value = null;
+      if(ev.value.length > 0 && ev.value[0].type === asn1.Type.INTEGER) {
+        value = ev.value[0].value;
+      } else if(ev.value.length > 1) {
+        value = ev.value[1].value;
+      }
+      if(value !== null) {
+        e.pathLenConstraint = asn1.derToInteger(value);
+      }
+    } else if(e.name === 'extKeyUsage') {
+      // handle extKeyUsage
+      // value is a SEQUENCE of OIDs
+      var ev = asn1.fromDer(e.value);
+      for(var vi = 0; vi < ev.value.length; ++vi) {
+        var oid = asn1.derToOid(ev.value[vi].value);
+        if(oid in oids) {
+          e[oids[oid]] = true;
+        } else {
+          e[oid] = true;
+        }
+      }
+    } else if(e.name === 'nsCertType') {
+      // handle nsCertType
+      // get value as BIT STRING
+      var ev = asn1.fromDer(e.value);
+      var b2 = 0x00;
+      if(ev.value.length > 1) {
+        // skip first byte, just indicates unused bits which
+        // will be padded with 0s anyway
+        // get bytes with flag bits
+        b2 = ev.value.charCodeAt(1);
+      }
+      // set flags
+      e.client = (b2 & 0x80) === 0x80;
+      e.server = (b2 & 0x40) === 0x40;
+      e.email = (b2 & 0x20) === 0x20;
+      e.objsign = (b2 & 0x10) === 0x10;
+      e.reserved = (b2 & 0x08) === 0x08;
+      e.sslCA = (b2 & 0x04) === 0x04;
+      e.emailCA = (b2 & 0x02) === 0x02;
+      e.objCA = (b2 & 0x01) === 0x01;
+    } else if(
+      e.name === 'subjectAltName' ||
+      e.name === 'issuerAltName') {
+      // handle subjectAltName/issuerAltName
+      e.altNames = [];
+
+      // ev is a SYNTAX SEQUENCE
+      var gn;
+      var ev = asn1.fromDer(e.value);
+      for(var n = 0; n < ev.value.length; ++n) {
+        // get GeneralName
+        gn = ev.value[n];
+
+        var altName = {
+          type: gn.type,
+          value: gn.value
+        };
+        e.altNames.push(altName);
+
+        // Note: Support for types 1,2,6,7,8
+        switch(gn.type) {
+        // rfc822Name
+        case 1:
+        // dNSName
+        case 2:
+        // uniformResourceIdentifier (URI)
+        case 6:
+          break;
+        // IPAddress
+        case 7:
+          // convert to IPv4/IPv6 string representation
+          altName.ip = forge.util.bytesToIP(gn.value);
+          break;
+        // registeredID
+        case 8:
+          altName.oid = asn1.derToOid(gn.value);
+          break;
+        default:
+          // unsupported
+        }
+      }
+    } else if(e.name === 'subjectKeyIdentifier') {
+      // value is an OCTETSTRING w/the hash of the key-type specific
+      // public key structure (eg: RSAPublicKey)
+      var ev = asn1.fromDer(e.value);
+      e.subjectKeyIdentifier = forge.util.bytesToHex(ev.value);
+    }
+  }
+  return e;
+};
+
+/**
+ * Converts a PKCS#10 certification request (CSR) from an ASN.1 object.
+ *
+ * Note: If the certification request is to be verified then compute hash
+ * should be set to true. There is currently no implementation for converting
+ * a certificate back to ASN.1 so the CertificationRequestInfo part of the
+ * ASN.1 object needs to be scanned before the csr object is created.
+ *
+ * @param obj the asn1 representation of a PKCS#10 certification request (CSR).
+ * @param computeHash true to compute the hash for verification.
+ *
+ * @return the certification request (CSR).
+ */
+pki.certificationRequestFromAsn1 = function(obj, computeHash) {
+  // validate certification request and capture data
+  var capture = {};
+  var errors = [];
+  if(!asn1.validate(obj, certificationRequestValidator, capture, errors)) {
+    var error = new Error('Cannot read PKCS#10 certificate request. ' +
+      'ASN.1 object is not a PKCS#10 CertificationRequest.');
+    error.errors = errors;
+    throw error;
+  }
+
+  // ensure signature is not interpreted as an embedded ASN.1 object
+  if(typeof capture.csrSignature !== 'string') {
+    var csrSignature = '\x00';
+    for(var i = 0; i < capture.csrSignature.length; ++i) {
+      csrSignature += asn1.toDer(capture.csrSignature[i]).getBytes();
+    }
+    capture.csrSignature = csrSignature;
+  }
+
+  // get oid
+  var oid = asn1.derToOid(capture.publicKeyOid);
+  if(oid !== pki.oids.rsaEncryption) {
+    throw new Error('Cannot read public key. OID is not RSA.');
+  }
+
+  // create certification request
+  var csr = pki.createCertificationRequest();
+  csr.version = capture.csrVersion ? capture.csrVersion.charCodeAt(0) : 0;
+  csr.signatureOid = forge.asn1.derToOid(capture.csrSignatureOid);
+  csr.signatureParameters = _readSignatureParameters(
+    csr.signatureOid, capture.csrSignatureParams, true);
+  csr.siginfo.algorithmOid = forge.asn1.derToOid(capture.csrSignatureOid);
+  csr.siginfo.parameters = _readSignatureParameters(
+    csr.siginfo.algorithmOid, capture.csrSignatureParams, false);
+  // skip "unused bits" in signature value BITSTRING
+  var signature = forge.util.createBuffer(capture.csrSignature);
+  ++signature.read;
+  csr.signature = signature.getBytes();
+
+  // keep CertificationRequestInfo to preserve signature when exporting
+  csr.certificationRequestInfo = capture.certificationRequestInfo;
+
+  if(computeHash) {
+    // check signature OID for supported signature types
+    csr.md = null;
+    if(csr.signatureOid in oids) {
+      var oid = oids[csr.signatureOid];
+      switch(oid) {
+      case 'sha1WithRSAEncryption':
+        csr.md = forge.md.sha1.create();
+        break;
+      case 'md5WithRSAEncryption':
+        csr.md = forge.md.md5.create();
+        break;
+      case 'sha256WithRSAEncryption':
+        csr.md = forge.md.sha256.create();
+        break;
+      case 'RSASSA-PSS':
+        csr.md = forge.md.sha256.create();
+        break;
+      }
+    }
+    if(csr.md === null) {
+      var error = new Error('Could not compute certification request digest. ' +
+        'Unknown signature OID.');
+      error.signatureOid = csr.signatureOid;
+      throw error;
+    }
+
+    // produce DER formatted CertificationRequestInfo and digest it
+    var bytes = asn1.toDer(csr.certificationRequestInfo);
+    csr.md.update(bytes.getBytes());
+  }
+
+  // handle subject, build subject message digest
+  var smd = forge.md.sha1.create();
+  csr.subject.getField = function(sn) {
+    return _getAttribute(csr.subject, sn);
+  };
+  csr.subject.addField = function(attr) {
+    _fillMissingFields([attr]);
+    csr.subject.attributes.push(attr);
+  };
+  csr.subject.attributes = pki.RDNAttributesAsArray(
+    capture.certificationRequestInfoSubject, smd);
+  csr.subject.hash = smd.digest().toHex();
+
+  // convert RSA public key from ASN.1
+  csr.publicKey = pki.publicKeyFromAsn1(capture.subjectPublicKeyInfo);
+
+  // convert attributes from ASN.1
+  csr.getAttribute = function(sn) {
+    return _getAttribute(csr, sn);
+  };
+  csr.addAttribute = function(attr) {
+    _fillMissingFields([attr]);
+    csr.attributes.push(attr);
+  };
+  csr.attributes = pki.CRIAttributesAsArray(
+    capture.certificationRequestInfoAttributes || []);
+
+  return csr;
+};
+
+/**
+ * Creates an empty certification request (a CSR or certificate signing
+ * request). Once created, its public key and attributes can be set and then
+ * it can be signed.
+ *
+ * @return the empty certification request.
+ */
+pki.createCertificationRequest = function() {
+  var csr = {};
+  csr.version = 0x00;
+  csr.signatureOid = null;
+  csr.signature = null;
+  csr.siginfo = {};
+  csr.siginfo.algorithmOid = null;
+
+  csr.subject = {};
+  csr.subject.getField = function(sn) {
+    return _getAttribute(csr.subject, sn);
+  };
+  csr.subject.addField = function(attr) {
+    _fillMissingFields([attr]);
+    csr.subject.attributes.push(attr);
+  };
+  csr.subject.attributes = [];
+  csr.subject.hash = null;
+
+  csr.publicKey = null;
+  csr.attributes = [];
+  csr.getAttribute = function(sn) {
+    return _getAttribute(csr, sn);
+  };
+  csr.addAttribute = function(attr) {
+    _fillMissingFields([attr]);
+    csr.attributes.push(attr);
+  };
+  csr.md = null;
+
+  /**
+   * Sets the subject of this certification request.
+   *
+   * @param attrs the array of subject attributes to use.
+   */
+  csr.setSubject = function(attrs) {
+    // set new attributes
+    _fillMissingFields(attrs);
+    csr.subject.attributes = attrs;
+    csr.subject.hash = null;
+  };
+
+  /**
+   * Sets the attributes of this certification request.
+   *
+   * @param attrs the array of attributes to use.
+   */
+  csr.setAttributes = function(attrs) {
+    // set new attributes
+    _fillMissingFields(attrs);
+    csr.attributes = attrs;
+  };
+
+  /**
+   * Signs this certification request using the given private key.
+   *
+   * @param key the private key to sign with.
+   * @param md the message digest object to use (defaults to forge.md.sha1).
+   */
+  csr.sign = function(key, md) {
+    // TODO: get signature OID from private key
+    csr.md = md || forge.md.sha1.create();
+    var algorithmOid = oids[csr.md.algorithm + 'WithRSAEncryption'];
+    if(!algorithmOid) {
+      var error = new Error('Could not compute certification request digest. ' +
+        'Unknown message digest algorithm OID.');
+      error.algorithm = csr.md.algorithm;
+      throw error;
+    }
+    csr.signatureOid = csr.siginfo.algorithmOid = algorithmOid;
+
+    // get CertificationRequestInfo, convert to DER
+    csr.certificationRequestInfo = pki.getCertificationRequestInfo(csr);
+    var bytes = asn1.toDer(csr.certificationRequestInfo);
+
+    // digest and sign
+    csr.md.update(bytes.getBytes());
+    csr.signature = key.sign(csr.md);
+  };
+
+  /**
+   * Attempts verify the signature on the passed certification request using
+   * its public key.
+   *
+   * A CSR that has been exported to a file in PEM format can be verified using
+   * OpenSSL using this command:
+   *
+   * openssl req -in <the-csr-pem-file> -verify -noout -text
+   *
+   * @return true if verified, false if not.
+   */
+  csr.verify = function() {
+    var rval = false;
+
+    var md = csr.md;
+    if(md === null) {
+      // check signature OID for supported signature types
+      if(csr.signatureOid in oids) {
+        var oid = oids[csr.signatureOid];
+        switch(oid) {
+        case 'sha1WithRSAEncryption':
+          md = forge.md.sha1.create();
+          break;
+        case 'md5WithRSAEncryption':
+          md = forge.md.md5.create();
+          break;
+        case 'sha256WithRSAEncryption':
+          md = forge.md.sha256.create();
+          break;
+        case 'RSASSA-PSS':
+          md = forge.md.sha256.create();
+          break;
+        }
+      }
+      if(md === null) {
+        var error = new Error('Could not compute certification request digest. ' +
+          'Unknown signature OID.');
+        error.signatureOid = csr.signatureOid;
+        throw error;
+      }
+
+      // produce DER formatted CertificationRequestInfo and digest it
+      var cri = csr.certificationRequestInfo ||
+        pki.getCertificationRequestInfo(csr);
+      var bytes = asn1.toDer(cri);
+      md.update(bytes.getBytes());
+    }
+
+    if(md !== null) {
+      var scheme;
+
+      switch(csr.signatureOid) {
+      case oids.sha1WithRSAEncryption:
+        /* use PKCS#1 v1.5 padding scheme */
+        break;
+      case oids['RSASSA-PSS']:
+        var hash, mgf;
+
+        /* initialize mgf */
+        hash = oids[csr.signatureParameters.mgf.hash.algorithmOid];
+        if(hash === undefined || forge.md[hash] === undefined) {
+          var error = new Error('Unsupported MGF hash function.');
+          error.oid = csr.signatureParameters.mgf.hash.algorithmOid;
+          error.name = hash;
+          throw error;
+        }
+
+        mgf = oids[csr.signatureParameters.mgf.algorithmOid];
+        if(mgf === undefined || forge.mgf[mgf] === undefined) {
+          var error = new Error('Unsupported MGF function.');
+          error.oid = csr.signatureParameters.mgf.algorithmOid;
+          error.name = mgf;
+          throw error;
+        }
+
+        mgf = forge.mgf[mgf].create(forge.md[hash].create());
+
+        /* initialize hash function */
+        hash = oids[csr.signatureParameters.hash.algorithmOid];
+        if(hash === undefined || forge.md[hash] === undefined) {
+          var error = new Error('Unsupported RSASSA-PSS hash function.');
+          error.oid = csr.signatureParameters.hash.algorithmOid;
+          error.name = hash;
+          throw error;
+        }
+
+        scheme = forge.pss.create(forge.md[hash].create(), mgf,
+          csr.signatureParameters.saltLength);
+        break;
+      }
+
+      // verify signature on csr using its public key
+      rval = csr.publicKey.verify(
+        md.digest().getBytes(), csr.signature, scheme);
+    }
+
+    return rval;
+  };
+
+  return csr;
+};
+
+/**
+ * Converts an X.509 subject or issuer to an ASN.1 RDNSequence.
+ *
+ * @param obj the subject or issuer (distinguished name).
+ *
+ * @return the ASN.1 RDNSequence.
+ */
+function _dnToAsn1(obj) {
+  // create an empty RDNSequence
+  var rval = asn1.create(
+    asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL, asn1.Type.SEQUENCE, true, []);
+
+  // iterate over attributes
+  var attr, set;
+  var attrs = obj.attributes;
+  for(var i = 0; i < attrs.length; ++i) {
+    attr = attrs[i];
+    var value = attr.value;
+
+    // reuse tag class for attribute value if available
+    var valueTagClass = asn1.Type.PRINTABLESTRING;
+    if('valueTagClass' in attr) {
+      valueTagClass = attr.valueTagClass;
+
+      if(valueTagClass === asn1.Type.UTF8) {
+        value = forge.util.encodeUtf8(value);
+      }
+      // FIXME: handle more encodings
+    }
+
+    // create a RelativeDistinguishedName set
+    // each value in the set is an AttributeTypeAndValue first
+    // containing the type (an OID) and second the value
+    set = asn1.create(asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL, asn1.Type.SET, true, [
+      asn1.create(asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL, asn1.Type.SEQUENCE, true, [
+        // AttributeType
+        asn1.create(asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL, asn1.Type.OID, false,
+          asn1.oidToDer(attr.type).getBytes()),
+        // AttributeValue
+        asn1.create(asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL, valueTagClass, false, value)
+      ])
+    ]);
+    rval.value.push(set);
+  }
+
+  return rval;
+}
+
+/**
+ * Gets all printable attributes (typically of an issuer or subject) in a
+ * simplified JSON format for display.
+ *
+ * @param attrs the attributes.
+ *
+ * @return the JSON for display.
+ */
+function _getAttributesAsJson(attrs) {
+  var rval = {};
+  for(var i = 0; i < attrs.length; ++i) {
+    var attr = attrs[i];
+    if(attr.shortName && (
+      attr.valueTagClass === asn1.Type.UTF8 ||
+      attr.valueTagClass === asn1.Type.PRINTABLESTRING ||
+      attr.valueTagClass === asn1.Type.IA5STRING)) {
+      var value = attr.value;
+      if(attr.valueTagClass === asn1.Type.UTF8) {
+        value = forge.util.encodeUtf8(attr.value);
+      }
+      if(!(attr.shortName in rval)) {
+        rval[attr.shortName] = value;
+      } else if(forge.util.isArray(rval[attr.shortName])) {
+        rval[attr.shortName].push(value);
+      } else {
+        rval[attr.shortName] = [rval[attr.shortName], value];
+      }
+    }
+  }
+  return rval;
+}
+
+/**
+ * Fills in missing fields in attributes.
+ *
+ * @param attrs the attributes to fill missing fields in.
+ */
+function _fillMissingFields(attrs) {
+  var attr;
+  for(var i = 0; i < attrs.length; ++i) {
+    attr = attrs[i];
+
+    // populate missing name
+    if(typeof attr.name === 'undefined') {
+      if(attr.type && attr.type in pki.oids) {
+        attr.name = pki.oids[attr.type];
+      } else if(attr.shortName && attr.shortName in _shortNames) {
+        attr.name = pki.oids[_shortNames[attr.shortName]];
+      }
+    }
+
+    // populate missing type (OID)
+    if(typeof attr.type === 'undefined') {
+      if(attr.name && attr.name in pki.oids) {
+        attr.type = pki.oids[attr.name];
+      } else {
+        var error = new Error('Attribute type not specified.');
+        error.attribute = attr;
+        throw error;
+      }
+    }
+
+    // populate missing shortname
+    if(typeof attr.shortName === 'undefined') {
+      if(attr.name && attr.name in _shortNames) {
+        attr.shortName = _shortNames[attr.name];
+      }
+    }
+
+    // convert extensions to value
+    if(attr.type === oids.extensionRequest) {
+      attr.valueConstructed = true;
+      attr.valueTagClass = asn1.Type.SEQUENCE;
+      if(!attr.value && attr.extensions) {
+        attr.value = [];
+        for(var ei = 0; ei < attr.extensions.length; ++ei) {
+          attr.value.push(pki.certificateExtensionToAsn1(
+            _fillMissingExtensionFields(attr.extensions[ei])));
+        }
+      }
+    }
+
+    if(typeof attr.value === 'undefined') {
+      var error = new Error('Attribute value not specified.');
+      error.attribute = attr;
+      throw error;
+    }
+  }
+}
+
+/**
+ * Fills in missing fields in certificate extensions.
+ *
+ * @param e the extension.
+ * @param [options] the options to use.
+ *          [cert] the certificate the extensions are for.
+ *
+ * @return the extension.
+ */
+function _fillMissingExtensionFields(e, options) {
+  options = options || {};
+
+  // populate missing name
+  if(typeof e.name === 'undefined') {
+    if(e.id && e.id in pki.oids) {
+      e.name = pki.oids[e.id];
+    }
+  }
+
+  // populate missing id
+  if(typeof e.id === 'undefined') {
+    if(e.name && e.name in pki.oids) {
+      e.id = pki.oids[e.name];
+    } else {
+      var error = new Error('Extension ID not specified.');
+      error.extension = e;
+      throw error;
+    }
+  }
+
+  if(typeof e.value !== 'undefined') {
+    return e;
+  }
+
+  // handle missing value:
+
+  // value is a BIT STRING
+  if(e.name === 'keyUsage') {
+    // build flags
+    var unused = 0;
+    var b2 = 0x00;
+    var b3 = 0x00;
+    if(e.digitalSignature) {
+      b2 |= 0x80;
+      unused = 7;
+    }
+    if(e.nonRepudiation) {
+      b2 |= 0x40;
+      unused = 6;
+    }
+    if(e.keyEncipherment) {
+      b2 |= 0x20;
+      unused = 5;
+    }
+    if(e.dataEncipherment) {
+      b2 |= 0x10;
+      unused = 4;
+    }
+    if(e.keyAgreement) {
+      b2 |= 0x08;
+      unused = 3;
+    }
+    if(e.keyCertSign) {
+      b2 |= 0x04;
+      unused = 2;
+    }
+    if(e.cRLSign) {
+      b2 |= 0x02;
+      unused = 1;
+    }
+    if(e.encipherOnly) {
+      b2 |= 0x01;
+      unused = 0;
+    }
+    if(e.decipherOnly) {
+      b3 |= 0x80;
+      unused = 7;
+    }
+
+    // create bit string
+    var value = String.fromCharCode(unused);
+    if(b3 !== 0) {
+      value += String.fromCharCode(b2) + String.fromCharCode(b3);
+    } else if(b2 !== 0) {
+      value += String.fromCharCode(b2);
+    }
+    e.value = asn1.create(
+      asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL, asn1.Type.BITSTRING, false, value);
+  } else if(e.name === 'basicConstraints') {
+    // basicConstraints is a SEQUENCE
+    e.value = asn1.create(
+      asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL, asn1.Type.SEQUENCE, true, []);
+    // cA BOOLEAN flag defaults to false
+    if(e.cA) {
+      e.value.value.push(asn1.create(
+        asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL, asn1.Type.BOOLEAN, false,
+        String.fromCharCode(0xFF)));
+    }
+    if('pathLenConstraint' in e) {
+      e.value.value.push(asn1.create(
+        asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL, asn1.Type.INTEGER, false,
+        asn1.integerToDer(e.pathLenConstraint).getBytes()));
+    }
+  } else if(e.name === 'extKeyUsage') {
+    // extKeyUsage is a SEQUENCE of OIDs
+    e.value = asn1.create(
+      asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL, asn1.Type.SEQUENCE, true, []);
+    var seq = e.value.value;
+    for(var key in e) {
+      if(e[key] !== true) {
+        continue;
+      }
+      // key is name in OID map
+      if(key in oids) {
+        seq.push(asn1.create(asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL, asn1.Type.OID,
+          false, asn1.oidToDer(oids[key]).getBytes()));
+      } else if(key.indexOf('.') !== -1) {
+        // assume key is an OID
+        seq.push(asn1.create(asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL, asn1.Type.OID,
+          false, asn1.oidToDer(key).getBytes()));
+      }
+    }
+  } else if(e.name === 'nsCertType') {
+    // nsCertType is a BIT STRING
+    // build flags
+    var unused = 0;
+    var b2 = 0x00;
+
+    if(e.client) {
+      b2 |= 0x80;
+      unused = 7;
+    }
+    if(e.server) {
+      b2 |= 0x40;
+      unused = 6;
+    }
+    if(e.email) {
+      b2 |= 0x20;
+      unused = 5;
+    }
+    if(e.objsign) {
+      b2 |= 0x10;
+      unused = 4;
+    }
+    if(e.reserved) {
+      b2 |= 0x08;
+      unused = 3;
+    }
+    if(e.sslCA) {
+      b2 |= 0x04;
+      unused = 2;
+    }
+    if(e.emailCA) {
+      b2 |= 0x02;
+      unused = 1;
+    }
+    if(e.objCA) {
+      b2 |= 0x01;
+      unused = 0;
+    }
+
+    // create bit string
+    var value = String.fromCharCode(unused);
+    if(b2 !== 0) {
+      value += String.fromCharCode(b2);
+    }
+    e.value = asn1.create(
+      asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL, asn1.Type.BITSTRING, false, value);
+  } else if(e.name === 'subjectAltName' || e.name === 'issuerAltName') {
+    // SYNTAX SEQUENCE
+    e.value = asn1.create(asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL, asn1.Type.SEQUENCE, true, []);
+
+    var altName;
+    for(var n = 0; n < e.altNames.length; ++n) {
+      altName = e.altNames[n];
+      var value = altName.value;
+      // handle IP
+      if(altName.type === 7 && altName.ip) {
+        value = forge.util.bytesFromIP(altName.ip);
+        if(value === null) {
+          var error = new Error(
+            'Extension "ip" value is not a valid IPv4 or IPv6 address.');
+          error.extension = e;
+          throw error;
+        }
+      } else if(altName.type === 8) {
+        // handle OID
+        if(altName.oid) {
+          value = asn1.oidToDer(asn1.oidToDer(altName.oid));
+        } else {
+          // deprecated ... convert value to OID
+          value = asn1.oidToDer(value);
+        }
+      }
+      e.value.value.push(asn1.create(
+        asn1.Class.CONTEXT_SPECIFIC, altName.type, false,
+        value));
+    }
+  } else if(e.name === 'subjectKeyIdentifier' && options.cert) {
+    var ski = options.cert.generateSubjectKeyIdentifier();
+    e.subjectKeyIdentifier = ski.toHex();
+    // OCTETSTRING w/digest
+    e.value = asn1.create(
+      asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL, asn1.Type.OCTETSTRING, false, ski.getBytes());
+  }
+
+  // ensure value has been defined by now
+  if(typeof e.value === 'undefined') {
+    var error = new Error('Extension value not specified.');
+    error.extension = e;
+    throw error;
+  }
+
+  return e;
+}
+
+/**
+ * Convert signature parameters object to ASN.1
+ *
+ * @param {String} oid Signature algorithm OID
+ * @param params The signature parametrs object
+ * @return ASN.1 object representing signature parameters
+ */
+function _signatureParametersToAsn1(oid, params) {
+  switch(oid) {
+  case oids['RSASSA-PSS']:
+    var parts = [];
+
+    if(params.hash.algorithmOid !== undefined) {
+      parts.push(asn1.create(asn1.Class.CONTEXT_SPECIFIC, 0, true, [
+        asn1.create(asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL, asn1.Type.SEQUENCE, true, [
+          asn1.create(asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL, asn1.Type.OID, false,
+            asn1.oidToDer(params.hash.algorithmOid).getBytes()),
+          asn1.create(asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL, asn1.Type.NULL, false, '')
+        ])
+      ]));
+    }
+
+    if(params.mgf.algorithmOid !== undefined) {
+      parts.push(asn1.create(asn1.Class.CONTEXT_SPECIFIC, 1, true, [
+        asn1.create(asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL, asn1.Type.SEQUENCE, true, [
+          asn1.create(asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL, asn1.Type.OID, false,
+            asn1.oidToDer(params.mgf.algorithmOid).getBytes()),
+          asn1.create(asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL, asn1.Type.SEQUENCE, true, [
+            asn1.create(asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL, asn1.Type.OID, false,
+              asn1.oidToDer(params.mgf.hash.algorithmOid).getBytes()),
+            asn1.create(asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL, asn1.Type.NULL, false, '')
+          ])
+        ])
+      ]));
+    }
+
+    if(params.saltLength !== undefined) {
+      parts.push(asn1.create(asn1.Class.CONTEXT_SPECIFIC, 2, true, [
+        asn1.create(asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL, asn1.Type.INTEGER, false,
+          asn1.integerToDer(params.saltLength).getBytes())
+      ]));
+    }
+
+    return asn1.create(asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL, asn1.Type.SEQUENCE, true, parts);
+
+  default:
+    return asn1.create(asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL, asn1.Type.NULL, false, '');
+  }
+}
+
+/**
+ * Converts a certification request's attributes to an ASN.1 set of
+ * CRIAttributes.
+ *
+ * @param csr certification request.
+ *
+ * @return the ASN.1 set of CRIAttributes.
+ */
+function _CRIAttributesToAsn1(csr) {
+  // create an empty context-specific container
+  var rval = asn1.create(asn1.Class.CONTEXT_SPECIFIC, 0, true, []);
+
+  // no attributes, return empty container
+  if(csr.attributes.length === 0) {
+    return rval;
+  }
+
+  // each attribute has a sequence with a type and a set of values
+  var attrs = csr.attributes;
+  for(var i = 0; i < attrs.length; ++i) {
+    var attr = attrs[i];
+    var value = attr.value;
+
+    // reuse tag class for attribute value if available
+    var valueTagClass = asn1.Type.UTF8;
+    if('valueTagClass' in attr) {
+      valueTagClass = attr.valueTagClass;
+    }
+    if(valueTagClass === asn1.Type.UTF8) {
+      value = forge.util.encodeUtf8(value);
+    }
+    var valueConstructed = false;
+    if('valueConstructed' in attr) {
+      valueConstructed = attr.valueConstructed;
+    }
+    // FIXME: handle more encodings
+
+    // create a RelativeDistinguishedName set
+    // each value in the set is an AttributeTypeAndValue first
+    // containing the type (an OID) and second the value
+    var seq = asn1.create(asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL, asn1.Type.SEQUENCE, true, [
+      // AttributeType
+      asn1.create(asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL, asn1.Type.OID, false,
+        asn1.oidToDer(attr.type).getBytes()),
+      asn1.create(asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL, asn1.Type.SET, true, [
+        // AttributeValue
+        asn1.create(
+          asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL, valueTagClass, valueConstructed, value)
+      ])
+    ]);
+    rval.value.push(seq);
+  }
+
+  return rval;
+}
+
+/**
+ * Gets the ASN.1 TBSCertificate part of an X.509v3 certificate.
+ *
+ * @param cert the certificate.
+ *
+ * @return the asn1 TBSCertificate.
+ */
+pki.getTBSCertificate = function(cert) {
+  // TBSCertificate
+  var tbs = asn1.create(asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL, asn1.Type.SEQUENCE, true, [
+    // version
+    asn1.create(asn1.Class.CONTEXT_SPECIFIC, 0, true, [
+      // integer
+      asn1.create(asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL, asn1.Type.INTEGER, false,
+        asn1.integerToDer(cert.version).getBytes())
+    ]),
+    // serialNumber
+    asn1.create(asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL, asn1.Type.INTEGER, false,
+      forge.util.hexToBytes(cert.serialNumber)),
+    // signature
+    asn1.create(asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL, asn1.Type.SEQUENCE, true, [
+      // algorithm
+      asn1.create(asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL, asn1.Type.OID, false,
+        asn1.oidToDer(cert.siginfo.algorithmOid).getBytes()),
+      // parameters
+      _signatureParametersToAsn1(
+        cert.siginfo.algorithmOid, cert.siginfo.parameters)
+    ]),
+    // issuer
+    _dnToAsn1(cert.issuer),
+    // validity
+    asn1.create(asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL, asn1.Type.SEQUENCE, true, [
+      // notBefore
+      asn1.create(asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL, asn1.Type.UTCTIME, false,
+        asn1.dateToUtcTime(cert.validity.notBefore)),
+      // notAfter
+      asn1.create(asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL, asn1.Type.UTCTIME, false,
+        asn1.dateToUtcTime(cert.validity.notAfter))
+    ]),
+    // subject
+    _dnToAsn1(cert.subject),
+    // SubjectPublicKeyInfo
+    pki.publicKeyToAsn1(cert.publicKey)
+  ]);
+
+  if(cert.issuer.uniqueId) {
+    // issuerUniqueID (optional)
+    tbs.value.push(
+      asn1.create(asn1.Class.CONTEXT_SPECIFIC, 1, true, [
+        asn1.create(asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL, asn1.Type.BITSTRING, false,
+          String.fromCharCode(0x00) +
+          cert.issuer.uniqueId
+        )
+      ])
+    );
+  }
+  if(cert.subject.uniqueId) {
+    // subjectUniqueID (optional)
+    tbs.value.push(
+      asn1.create(asn1.Class.CONTEXT_SPECIFIC, 2, true, [
+        asn1.create(asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL, asn1.Type.BITSTRING, false,
+          String.fromCharCode(0x00) +
+          cert.subject.uniqueId
+        )
+      ])
+    );
+  }
+
+  if(cert.extensions.length > 0) {
+    // extensions (optional)
+    tbs.value.push(pki.certificateExtensionsToAsn1(cert.extensions));
+  }
+
+  return tbs;
+};
+
+/**
+ * Gets the ASN.1 CertificationRequestInfo part of a
+ * PKCS#10 CertificationRequest.
+ *
+ * @param csr the certification request.
+ *
+ * @return the asn1 CertificationRequestInfo.
+ */
+pki.getCertificationRequestInfo = function(csr) {
+  // CertificationRequestInfo
+  var cri = asn1.create(asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL, asn1.Type.SEQUENCE, true, [
+    // version
+    asn1.create(asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL, asn1.Type.INTEGER, false,
+      asn1.integerToDer(csr.version).getBytes()),
+    // subject
+    _dnToAsn1(csr.subject),
+    // SubjectPublicKeyInfo
+    pki.publicKeyToAsn1(csr.publicKey),
+    // attributes
+    _CRIAttributesToAsn1(csr)
+  ]);
+
+  return cri;
+};
+
+/**
+ * Converts a DistinguishedName (subject or issuer) to an ASN.1 object.
+ *
+ * @param dn the DistinguishedName.
+ *
+ * @return the asn1 representation of a DistinguishedName.
+ */
+pki.distinguishedNameToAsn1 = function(dn) {
+  return _dnToAsn1(dn);
+};
+
+/**
+ * Converts an X.509v3 RSA certificate to an ASN.1 object.
+ *
+ * @param cert the certificate.
+ *
+ * @return the asn1 representation of an X.509v3 RSA certificate.
+ */
+pki.certificateToAsn1 = function(cert) {
+  // prefer cached TBSCertificate over generating one
+  var tbsCertificate = cert.tbsCertificate || pki.getTBSCertificate(cert);
+
+  // Certificate
+  return asn1.create(asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL, asn1.Type.SEQUENCE, true, [
+    // TBSCertificate
+    tbsCertificate,
+    // AlgorithmIdentifier (signature algorithm)
+    asn1.create(asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL, asn1.Type.SEQUENCE, true, [
+      // algorithm
+      asn1.create(asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL, asn1.Type.OID, false,
+        asn1.oidToDer(cert.signatureOid).getBytes()),
+      // parameters
+      _signatureParametersToAsn1(cert.signatureOid, cert.signatureParameters)
+    ]),
+    // SignatureValue
+    asn1.create(asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL, asn1.Type.BITSTRING, false,
+      String.fromCharCode(0x00) + cert.signature)
+  ]);
+};
+
+/**
+ * Converts X.509v3 certificate extensions to ASN.1.
+ *
+ * @param exts the extensions to convert.
+ *
+ * @return the extensions in ASN.1 format.
+ */
+pki.certificateExtensionsToAsn1 = function(exts) {
+  // create top-level extension container
+  var rval = asn1.create(asn1.Class.CONTEXT_SPECIFIC, 3, true, []);
+
+  // create extension sequence (stores a sequence for each extension)
+  var seq = asn1.create(asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL, asn1.Type.SEQUENCE, true, []);
+  rval.value.push(seq);
+
+  for(var i = 0; i < exts.length; ++i) {
+    seq.value.push(pki.certificateExtensionToAsn1(exts[i]));
+  }
+
+  return rval;
+};
+
+/**
+ * Converts a single certificate extension to ASN.1.
+ *
+ * @param ext the extension to convert.
+ *
+ * @return the extension in ASN.1 format.
+ */
+pki.certificateExtensionToAsn1 = function(ext) {
+  // create a sequence for each extension
+  var extseq = asn1.create(asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL, asn1.Type.SEQUENCE, true, []);
+
+  // extnID (OID)
+  extseq.value.push(asn1.create(
+    asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL, asn1.Type.OID, false,
+    asn1.oidToDer(ext.id).getBytes()));
+
+  // critical defaults to false
+  if(ext.critical) {
+    // critical BOOLEAN DEFAULT FALSE
+    extseq.value.push(asn1.create(
+      asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL, asn1.Type.BOOLEAN, false,
+      String.fromCharCode(0xFF)));
+  }
+
+  var value = ext.value;
+  if(typeof ext.value !== 'string') {
+    // value is asn.1
+    value = asn1.toDer(value).getBytes();
+  }
+
+  // extnValue (OCTET STRING)
+  extseq.value.push(asn1.create(
+    asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL, asn1.Type.OCTETSTRING, false, value));
+
+  return extseq;
+};
+
+/**
+ * Converts a PKCS#10 certification request to an ASN.1 object.
+ *
+ * @param csr the certification request.
+ *
+ * @return the asn1 representation of a certification request.
+ */
+pki.certificationRequestToAsn1 = function(csr) {
+  // prefer cached CertificationRequestInfo over generating one
+  var cri = csr.certificationRequestInfo ||
+    pki.getCertificationRequestInfo(csr);
+
+  // Certificate
+  return asn1.create(asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL, asn1.Type.SEQUENCE, true, [
+    // CertificationRequestInfo
+    cri,
+    // AlgorithmIdentifier (signature algorithm)
+    asn1.create(asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL, asn1.Type.SEQUENCE, true, [
+      // algorithm
+      asn1.create(asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL, asn1.Type.OID, false,
+        asn1.oidToDer(csr.signatureOid).getBytes()),
+      // parameters
+      _signatureParametersToAsn1(csr.signatureOid, csr.signatureParameters)
+    ]),
+    // signature
+    asn1.create(asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL, asn1.Type.BITSTRING, false,
+      String.fromCharCode(0x00) + csr.signature)
+  ]);
+};
+
+/**
+ * Creates a CA store.
+ *
+ * @param certs an optional array of certificate objects or PEM-formatted
+ *          certificate strings to add to the CA store.
+ *
+ * @return the CA store.
+ */
+pki.createCaStore = function(certs) {
+  // create CA store
+  var caStore = {
+    // stored certificates
+    certs: {}
+  };
+
+  /**
+   * Gets the certificate that issued the passed certificate or its
+   * 'parent'.
+   *
+   * @param cert the certificate to get the parent for.
+   *
+   * @return the parent certificate or null if none was found.
+   */
+  caStore.getIssuer = function(cert) {
+    var rval = getBySubject(cert.issuer);
+
+    // see if there are multiple matches
+    /*if(forge.util.isArray(rval)) {
+      // TODO: resolve multiple matches by checking
+      // authorityKey/subjectKey/issuerUniqueID/other identifiers, etc.
+      // FIXME: or alternatively do authority key mapping
+      // if possible (X.509v1 certs can't work?)
+      throw new Error('Resolving multiple issuer matches not implemented yet.');
+    }*/
+
+    return rval;
+  };
+
+  /**
+   * Adds a trusted certificate to the store.
+   *
+   * @param cert the certificate to add as a trusted certificate (either a
+   *          pki.certificate object or a PEM-formatted certificate).
+   */
+  caStore.addCertificate = function(cert) {
+    // convert from pem if necessary
+    if(typeof cert === 'string') {
+      cert = forge.pki.certificateFromPem(cert);
+    }
+
+    // produce subject hash if it doesn't exist
+    if(!cert.subject.hash) {
+      var md = forge.md.sha1.create();
+      cert.subject.attributes =  pki.RDNAttributesAsArray(
+        _dnToAsn1(cert.subject), md);
+      cert.subject.hash = md.digest().toHex();
+    }
+
+    if(cert.subject.hash in caStore.certs) {
+      // subject hash already exists, append to array
+      var tmp = caStore.certs[cert.subject.hash];
+      if(!forge.util.isArray(tmp)) {
+        tmp = [tmp];
+      }
+      tmp.push(cert);
+    } else {
+      caStore.certs[cert.subject.hash] = cert;
+    }
+  };
+
+  /**
+   * Checks to see if the given certificate is in the store.
+   *
+   * @param cert the certificate to check.
+   *
+   * @return true if the certificate is in the store, false if not.
+   */
+  caStore.hasCertificate = function(cert) {
+    var match = getBySubject(cert.subject);
+    if(!match) {
+      return false;
+    }
+    if(!forge.util.isArray(match)) {
+      match = [match];
+    }
+    // compare DER-encoding of certificates
+    var der1 = asn1.toDer(pki.certificateToAsn1(cert)).getBytes();
+    for(var i = 0; i < match.length; ++i) {
+      var der2 = asn1.toDer(pki.certificateToAsn1(match[i])).getBytes();
+      if(der1 === der2) {
+        return true;
+      }
+    }
+    return false;
+  };
+
+  function getBySubject(subject) {
+    // produce subject hash if it doesn't exist
+    if(!subject.hash) {
+      var md = forge.md.sha1.create();
+      subject.attributes =  pki.RDNAttributesAsArray(_dnToAsn1(subject), md);
+      subject.hash = md.digest().toHex();
+    }
+    return caStore.certs[subject.hash] || null;
+  }
+
+  // auto-add passed in certs
+  if(certs) {
+    // parse PEM-formatted certificates as necessary
+    for(var i = 0; i < certs.length; ++i) {
+      var cert = certs[i];
+      caStore.addCertificate(cert);
+    }
+  }
+
+  return caStore;
+};
+
+/**
+ * Certificate verification errors, based on TLS.
+ */
+pki.certificateError = {
+  bad_certificate: 'forge.pki.BadCertificate',
+  unsupported_certificate: 'forge.pki.UnsupportedCertificate',
+  certificate_revoked: 'forge.pki.CertificateRevoked',
+  certificate_expired: 'forge.pki.CertificateExpired',
+  certificate_unknown: 'forge.pki.CertificateUnknown',
+  unknown_ca: 'forge.pki.UnknownCertificateAuthority'
+};
+
+/**
+ * Verifies a certificate chain against the given Certificate Authority store
+ * with an optional custom verify callback.
+ *
+ * @param caStore a certificate store to verify against.
+ * @param chain the certificate chain to verify, with the root or highest
+ *          authority at the end (an array of certificates).
+ * @param verify called for every certificate in the chain.
+ *
+ * The verify callback has the following signature:
+ *
+ * verified - Set to true if certificate was verified, otherwise the
+ *   pki.certificateError for why the certificate failed.
+ * depth - The current index in the chain, where 0 is the end point's cert.
+ * certs - The certificate chain, *NOTE* an empty chain indicates an anonymous
+ *   end point.
+ *
+ * The function returns true on success and on failure either the appropriate
+ * pki.certificateError or an object with 'error' set to the appropriate
+ * pki.certificateError and 'message' set to a custom error message.
+ *
+ * @return true if successful, error thrown if not.
+ */
+pki.verifyCertificateChain = function(caStore, chain, verify) {
+  /* From: RFC3280 - Internet X.509 Public Key Infrastructure Certificate
+    Section 6: Certification Path Validation
+    See inline parentheticals related to this particular implementation.
+
+    The primary goal of path validation is to verify the binding between
+    a subject distinguished name or a subject alternative name and subject
+    public key, as represented in the end entity certificate, based on the
+    public key of the trust anchor. This requires obtaining a sequence of
+    certificates that support that binding. That sequence should be provided
+    in the passed 'chain'. The trust anchor should be in the given CA
+    store. The 'end entity' certificate is the certificate provided by the
+    end point (typically a server) and is the first in the chain.
+
+    To meet this goal, the path validation process verifies, among other
+    things, that a prospective certification path (a sequence of n
+    certificates or a 'chain') satisfies the following conditions:
+
+    (a) for all x in {1, ..., n-1}, the subject of certificate x is
+          the issuer of certificate x+1;
+
+    (b) certificate 1 is issued by the trust anchor;
+
+    (c) certificate n is the certificate to be validated; and
+
+    (d) for all x in {1, ..., n}, the certificate was valid at the
+          time in question.
+
+    Note that here 'n' is index 0 in the chain and 1 is the last certificate
+    in the chain and it must be signed by a certificate in the connection's
+    CA store.
+
+    The path validation process also determines the set of certificate
+    policies that are valid for this path, based on the certificate policies
+    extension, policy mapping extension, policy constraints extension, and
+    inhibit any-policy extension.
+
+    Note: Policy mapping extension not supported (Not Required).
+
+    Note: If the certificate has an unsupported critical extension, then it
+    must be rejected.
+
+    Note: A certificate is self-issued if the DNs that appear in the subject
+    and issuer fields are identical and are not empty.
+
+    The path validation algorithm assumes the following seven inputs are
+    provided to the path processing logic. What this specific implementation
+    will use is provided parenthetically:
+
+    (a) a prospective certification path of length n (the 'chain')
+    (b) the current date/time: ('now').
+    (c) user-initial-policy-set: A set of certificate policy identifiers
+          naming the policies that are acceptable to the certificate user.
+          The user-initial-policy-set contains the special value any-policy
+          if the user is not concerned about certificate policy
+          (Not implemented. Any policy is accepted).
+    (d) trust anchor information, describing a CA that serves as a trust
+          anchor for the certification path. The trust anchor information
+          includes:
+
+      (1)  the trusted issuer name,
+      (2)  the trusted public key algorithm,
+      (3)  the trusted public key, and
+      (4)  optionally, the trusted public key parameters associated
+             with the public key.
+
+      (Trust anchors are provided via certificates in the CA store).
+
+      The trust anchor information may be provided to the path processing
+      procedure in the form of a self-signed certificate. The trusted anchor
+      information is trusted because it was delivered to the path processing
+      procedure by some trustworthy out-of-band procedure. If the trusted
+      public key algorithm requires parameters, then the parameters are
+      provided along with the trusted public key (No parameters used in this
+      implementation).
+
+    (e) initial-policy-mapping-inhibit, which indicates if policy mapping is
+          allowed in the certification path.
+          (Not implemented, no policy checking)
+
+    (f) initial-explicit-policy, which indicates if the path must be valid
+          for at least one of the certificate policies in the user-initial-
+          policy-set.
+          (Not implemented, no policy checking)
+
+    (g) initial-any-policy-inhibit, which indicates whether the
+          anyPolicy OID should be processed if it is included in a
+          certificate.
+          (Not implemented, so any policy is valid provided that it is
+          not marked as critical) */
+
+  /* Basic Path Processing:
+
+    For each certificate in the 'chain', the following is checked:
+
+    1. The certificate validity period includes the current time.
+    2. The certificate was signed by its parent (where the parent is either
+       the next in the chain or from the CA store). Allow processing to
+       continue to the next step if no parent is found but the certificate is
+       in the CA store.
+    3. TODO: The certificate has not been revoked.
+    4. The certificate issuer name matches the parent's subject name.
+    5. TODO: If the certificate is self-issued and not the final certificate
+       in the chain, skip this step, otherwise verify that the subject name
+       is within one of the permitted subtrees of X.500 distinguished names
+       and that each of the alternative names in the subjectAltName extension
+       (critical or non-critical) is within one of the permitted subtrees for
+       that name type.
+    6. TODO: If the certificate is self-issued and not the final certificate
+       in the chain, skip this step, otherwise verify that the subject name
+       is not within one of the excluded subtrees for X.500 distinguished
+       names and none of the subjectAltName extension names are excluded for
+       that name type.
+    7. The other steps in the algorithm for basic path processing involve
+       handling the policy extension which is not presently supported in this
+       implementation. Instead, if a critical policy extension is found, the
+       certificate is rejected as not supported.
+    8. If the certificate is not the first or if its the only certificate in
+       the chain (having no parent from the CA store or is self-signed) and it
+       has a critical key usage extension, verify that the keyCertSign bit is
+       set. If the key usage extension exists, verify that the basic
+       constraints extension exists. If the basic constraints extension exists,
+       verify that the cA flag is set. If pathLenConstraint is set, ensure that
+       the number of certificates that precede in the chain (come earlier
+       in the chain as implemented below), excluding the very first in the
+       chain (typically the end-entity one), isn't greater than the
+       pathLenConstraint. This constraint limits the number of intermediate
+       CAs that may appear below a CA before only end-entity certificates
+       may be issued. */
+
+  // copy cert chain references to another array to protect against changes
+  // in verify callback
+  chain = chain.slice(0);
+  var certs = chain.slice(0);
+
+  // get current date
+  var now = new Date();
+
+  // verify each cert in the chain using its parent, where the parent
+  // is either the next in the chain or from the CA store
+  var first = true;
+  var error = null;
+  var depth = 0;
+  do {
+    var cert = chain.shift();
+    var parent = null;
+    var selfSigned = false;
+
+    // 1. check valid time
+    if(now < cert.validity.notBefore || now > cert.validity.notAfter) {
+      error = {
+        message: 'Certificate is not valid yet or has expired.',
+        error: pki.certificateError.certificate_expired,
+        notBefore: cert.validity.notBefore,
+        notAfter: cert.validity.notAfter,
+        now: now
+      };
+    }
+
+    // 2. verify with parent from chain or CA store
+    if(error === null) {
+      parent = chain[0] || caStore.getIssuer(cert);
+      if(parent === null) {
+        // check for self-signed cert
+        if(cert.isIssuer(cert)) {
+          selfSigned = true;
+          parent = cert;
+        }
+      }
+
+      if(parent) {
+        // FIXME: current CA store implementation might have multiple
+        // certificates where the issuer can't be determined from the
+        // certificate (happens rarely with, eg: old certificates) so normalize
+        // by always putting parents into an array
+        // TODO: there's may be an extreme degenerate case currently uncovered
+        // where an old intermediate certificate seems to have a matching parent
+        // but none of the parents actually verify ... but the intermediate
+        // is in the CA and it should pass this check; needs investigation
+        var parents = parent;
+        if(!forge.util.isArray(parents)) {
+          parents = [parents];
+        }
+
+        // try to verify with each possible parent (typically only one)
+        var verified = false;
+        while(!verified && parents.length > 0) {
+          parent = parents.shift();
+          try {
+            verified = parent.verify(cert);
+          } catch(ex) {
+            // failure to verify, don't care why, try next one
+          }
+        }
+
+        if(!verified) {
+          error = {
+            message: 'Certificate signature is invalid.',
+            error: pki.certificateError.bad_certificate
+          };
+        }
+      }
+
+      if(error === null && (!parent || selfSigned) &&
+        !caStore.hasCertificate(cert)) {
+        // no parent issuer and certificate itself is not trusted
+        error = {
+          message: 'Certificate is not trusted.',
+          error: pki.certificateError.unknown_ca
+        };
+      }
+    }
+
+    // TODO: 3. check revoked
+
+    // 4. check for matching issuer/subject
+    if(error === null && parent && !cert.isIssuer(parent)) {
+      // parent is not issuer
+      error = {
+        message: 'Certificate issuer is invalid.',
+        error: pki.certificateError.bad_certificate
+      };
+    }
+
+    // 5. TODO: check names with permitted names tree
+
+    // 6. TODO: check names against excluded names tree
+
+    // 7. check for unsupported critical extensions
+    if(error === null) {
+      // supported extensions
+      var se = {
+        keyUsage: true,
+        basicConstraints: true
+      };
+      for(var i = 0; error === null && i < cert.extensions.length; ++i) {
+        var ext = cert.extensions[i];
+        if(ext.critical && !(ext.name in se)) {
+          error = {
+            message:
+              'Certificate has an unsupported critical extension.',
+            error: pki.certificateError.unsupported_certificate
+          };
+        }
+      }
+    }
+
+    // 8. check for CA if cert is not first or is the only certificate
+    // remaining in chain with no parent or is self-signed
+    if(error === null &&
+      (!first || (chain.length === 0 && (!parent || selfSigned)))) {
+      // first check keyUsage extension and then basic constraints
+      var bcExt = cert.getExtension('basicConstraints');
+      var keyUsageExt = cert.getExtension('keyUsage');
+      if(keyUsageExt !== null) {
+        // keyCertSign must be true and there must be a basic
+        // constraints extension
+        if(!keyUsageExt.keyCertSign || bcExt === null) {
+          // bad certificate
+          error = {
+            message:
+              'Certificate keyUsage or basicConstraints conflict ' +
+              'or indicate that the certificate is not a CA. ' +
+              'If the certificate is the only one in the chain or ' +
+              'isn\'t the first then the certificate must be a ' +
+              'valid CA.',
+            error: pki.certificateError.bad_certificate
+          };
+        }
+      }
+      // basic constraints cA flag must be set
+      if(error === null && bcExt !== null && !bcExt.cA) {
+        // bad certificate
+        error = {
+          message:
+            'Certificate basicConstraints indicates the certificate ' +
+            'is not a CA.',
+          error: pki.certificateError.bad_certificate
+        };
+      }
+      // if error is not null and keyUsage is available, then we know it
+      // has keyCertSign and there is a basic constraints extension too,
+      // which means we can check pathLenConstraint (if it exists)
+      if(error === null && keyUsageExt !== null &&
+        'pathLenConstraint' in bcExt) {
+        // pathLen is the maximum # of intermediate CA certs that can be
+        // found between the current certificate and the end-entity (depth 0)
+        // certificate; this number does not include the end-entity (depth 0,
+        // last in the chain) even if it happens to be a CA certificate itself
+        var pathLen = depth - 1;
+        if(pathLen > bcExt.pathLenConstraint) {
+          // pathLenConstraint violated, bad certificate
+          error = {
+            message:
+              'Certificate basicConstraints pathLenConstraint violated.',
+            error: pki.certificateError.bad_certificate
+          };
+        }
+      }
+    }
+
+    // call application callback
+    var vfd = (error === null) ? true : error.error;
+    var ret = verify ? verify(vfd, depth, certs) : vfd;
+    if(ret === true) {
+      // clear any set error
+      error = null;
+    } else {
+      // if passed basic tests, set default message and alert
+      if(vfd === true) {
+        error = {
+          message: 'The application rejected the certificate.',
+          error: pki.certificateError.bad_certificate
+        };
+      }
+
+      // check for custom error info
+      if(ret || ret === 0) {
+        // set custom message and error
+        if(typeof ret === 'object' && !forge.util.isArray(ret)) {
+          if(ret.message) {
+             error.message = ret.message;
+          }
+          if(ret.error) {
+            error.error = ret.error;
+          }
+        } else if(typeof ret === 'string') {
+          // set custom error
+          error.error = ret;
+        }
+      }
+
+      // throw error
+      throw error;
+    }
+
+    // no longer first cert in chain
+    first = false;
+    ++depth;
+  } while(chain.length > 0);
+
+  return true;
+};
+
+} // end module implementation
+
+/* ########## Begin module wrapper ########## */
+var name = 'x509';
+if(typeof define !== 'function') {
+  // NodeJS -> AMD
+  if(typeof module === 'object' && module.exports) {
+    var nodeJS = true;
+    define = function(ids, factory) {
+      factory(require, module);
+    };
+  } else {
+    // <script>
+    if(typeof forge === 'undefined') {
+      forge = {};
+    }
+    return initModule(forge);
+  }
+}
+// AMD
+var deps;
+var defineFunc = function(require, module) {
+  module.exports = function(forge) {
+    var mods = deps.map(function(dep) {
+      return require(dep);
+    }).concat(initModule);
+    // handle circular dependencies
+    forge = forge || {};
+    forge.defined = forge.defined || {};
+    if(forge.defined[name]) {
+      return forge[name];
+    }
+    forge.defined[name] = true;
+    for(var i = 0; i < mods.length; ++i) {
+      mods[i](forge);
+    }
+    return forge.pki;
+  };
+};
+var tmpDefine = define;
+define = function(ids, factory) {
+  deps = (typeof ids === 'string') ? factory.slice(2) : ids.slice(2);
+  if(nodeJS) {
+    delete define;
+    return tmpDefine.apply(null, Array.prototype.slice.call(arguments, 0));
+  }
+  define = tmpDefine;
+  return define.apply(null, Array.prototype.slice.call(arguments, 0));
+};
+define([
+  'require',
+  'module',
+  './aes',
+  './asn1',
+  './des',
+  './md',
+  './mgf',
+  './oids',
+  './pem',
+  './pss',
+  './rsa',
+  './util'
+], function() {
+  defineFunc.apply(null, Array.prototype.slice.call(arguments, 0));
+});
+})();